‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

University of Khartoum
Faculty of Science
Department of Geology

Course Title:

Electromagnetic Methods
VLF - GPR

By: Dr Mohamed Abdelwahab Lecture 3

 The VLF method
❑ There are many major VLF transmitter
distributed around the world used primarily for
military long-range communications and
navigational systems.

❑ These sources produce continuously low-

frequency band of (15–25 kHz) electromagnetic
radiation.

❑ Such signals may be used for surveying up to Principle of VLF method.

distances of several thousand kilometres Dashed lines show a tabular conductor striking
from the transmitter. towards the antenna which is cut by the magnetic
vector of the electromagnetic field.
❑ At large distances from the source the electromagnetic field is essentially planar and
horizontal
❑ The electric component E lies in a vertical plane and the magnetic component H lies at right
angles to the direction of propagation in a horizontal plane.
A conductor that strikes in the direction of the
transmitter is cut by the magnetic vector and the
induced eddy currents produce a secondary
electromagnetic field.
Conductors striking at right angles to the direction
of propagation are not cut effectively by the
magnetic vector.
The basic VLF receiver is a small hand-held
device incorporating two orthogonal
aerials which can be tuned to the
particular frequencies of the transmitters.
The direction of a transmitter is found by
rotating the horizontal coil around a vertical
axis until a null position is found.
Traverses are then performed over the survey
area at right angles to this direction.

The instrument is rotated about a horizontal axis orthogonal

to the traverse and the tilt recorded at the null position.

tilt recorded at the null position. Profiles are similar in form

with the conductor lying beneath locations of zero tilt.
Modern instruments have three coils with their axes at
right angles. They can thus detect the signal whatever its
direction, and find the null orientation electronically and
automatically.

Some instruments will measure signals from two or more

transmitters simultaneously.
In this case transmitters are chosen whose signals arrive in
the survey area at very different azimuths.
Advantages and Disadvantages of VLF
Advantages
1- Equipments are small and light

2- Conveniently fast and can be operated by one person

3- No need to install a local transmitter

4- Since it is magnetic induction method, it can be airborne

Disadvantages
1- Its depth penetration much lower than tilt-angle EM
2- Some surveys may not find suitable transmitter providing a magnetic vector
across the geological strike

3) it is susceptible to interference from nearby metal pipes, power lines, cables, fences,
vehicles or possible loss of signal from the VLF transmitter
 Application of VLF method
• VLF method has remained an excellent, cheap, rapid tool for
reconnaissance mapping of :
• (1) conductive mineralised bodies and
• (2) water-bearing fractures. Its use in
• (3) engineering and environmental work was remained small in the past.
However, with advent of modern VLF systems with integrated data-
loggers, auto-selection of appropriate transmitters and enhanced display
and interpretation methods, the technique is gradually being tried for
non-exploration purposes, such
• (4) cavity detection and (5) in mapping landfills.
VLF Interpretation
➢ VLF raw data collected in the field can be interpreted without further data
reduction. By plotting the “real” and “imaginary” components of the magnetic field
versus distance along a traverse profile, zones of high electrical conductivity can
be revealed.
➢ In several cases, the VLF curves can be very difficult to be interpreted, so, filtering
techniques can be used to enhance data and make tilt-angle crossovers easier to
identify.
➢ The well known filtering methods such as the Fraser filter can be applied for
converting the measured tilt-angle crossovers into peaks

Examples
Anomalies:
Anomalies: the “real” part is an anomalous curve and the
the “real” part is an anomalous curve and the “imaginary” is a symmetrical anomaly detected in the
“imaginary” part no anomaly (values close to 0). negative values.
Interpretation: Interpretation:
fault/fracture zone with a fresh water filled structure. fault/fracture zone with a saline water filled structure
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a technique of imaging the subsurface at high resolution.
Although analogous in some ways to the seismic methods, it is included in electromagnetic
methods as the propagation of radar waves through a medium is controlled by its electrical
properties at high frequencies.
• GPR is a non-destructive technique and can
consequently be applied in urban and sensitive
environments.
• GPR has many geological applications, such as:
• (1) imaging shallow soil and rock structure at high
resolution,
• (2) Locating buried channels and mapping the water
table.
• (3) It also has several non-geological uses such as:
• - In archaeology, for the location of buried walls or
cavities, and
• - In forensic investigations, for the location of recently-
disturbed ground where a burial has taken place.
Basic physics of GPR
• GPR is similar in its principles to seismic reflection profiling and sonar
surveying.
• A short radar pulse in the frequency band 10–1000 MHz is introduced into the
ground.
• Radar velocities are controlled by the dielectric constant (relative
permittivity) and conductivity of the subsurface.
The velocity of a radar wave
(V) is given by:
• In high resistivity rocks (>102ohmm) the
Relative dielectric permittivity
propagation velocity of the pulse is mainly
The velocity of light in vacuo (3 x 108ms-1)
controlled by
• Dielectric conduction takes place in such
Relative magnetic permeability
poor conductors and insulators, which have
no free carriers, by the slight displacement
of electrons with respect to their nuclei.
Dielectric conduction takes place in poor conductors and insulators, which have no free carriers, by
the slight displacement of electrons with respect to their nuclei.
A contrast in dielectric properties across an interface
causes reflection of part of a radar pulse with a
diminution of energy according to the reflection
coefficient K, which is analogous to the seismic
Generally, depth of penetration increases with
increasing resistivity.
A transmitting antenna generates a wavetrain which
comprises a pulse of radio waves with a specific
frequency (Based on targeted features).
The arriving pulse is scanned at a fixed rate for a time
adjusted to be of the order of the two-way travel time
of the pulse
A radar system comprises a signal generator, transmitting
and recieving antennae. The current advanced systems have
an onboard computer that facilitate data processing both
while acquiring data in the field and post-recording
The returned radar signals are amplified, digitized and recorded; the resulting data can be
displayed on a radargram, which is very similar to a seismogram.

The depth of penetration of radio waves depends on their frequency and the nature of the
material being surveyed.

Survey Modes in GPR

1. Reflection profiling, in which the transmitter and antenna are
kept at a small, fixed separation; this is often achieved by using
the same antenna for transmission and reception.

2. Velocity sounding, in which, either: (1) transmitter and antenna

are moved apart about a fixed central point (the common depth point (CDP) method), or one
kept stationary while the other is progressively moved away (the wide-angle reflection and
refraction (WARR) method). The methods are designed to show how the radar velocity changes
with depth.
 Transillumination, in which the
transmitter and antenna are
mounted on either side of the
object of interest (e.g. a pillar
in a mine). If it is arranged that
there are many different
configurations of transmitter
1. Reflection profiling, in which the transmitter and antenna are and antenna, radar
tomography can be carried out
kept at a small, fixed separation; this is often achieved by using in a similar fashion to seismic
the same antenna for transmission and reception. and resistivity tomography.

Velocity sounding, in which, either: (1) transmitter and

antenna are moved apart about a fixed central point
(the common depth point (CDP) method), or one kept
stationary while the other is progressively moved
away (the wide-angle reflection and refraction (WARR)
method).
One of the great advantages of the GPR method is the fact that
the raw data is acquired in a manner that allows it to be easily
viewed in real time using a computer screen. Often very little
processing is required for an initial interpretation of the data,
with most of the effort directed towards data visualization. On
the other hand, depending on the application and target of
interest, it may be necessary to perform sophisticated data
processing, and many practitioners find that techniques
common to seismic reflection such as migration can be applied.
The outcome of processing is a cross-section of the subsurface
EM properties, displayed in terms of the two-way travel time,
i.e. the time taken for a wave to move from the transmitter to a
reflector and return to the receiver. The amount of processing
undertaken can range from basic, which allows rapid data
output, to the more time consuming application of algorithms
designed for use on seismic dataset (Ylmaz, 1987), which
produce high quality output (Daniels et al. 1988; Conyers and
Goodman, 1997). The processing sequence usually developed
for GPR raw data is following done.
• Radar signal are displayed on a graphic
recorder, for example, are determined
by the operator.
• The 2-ways Travel time are displayed as
traces (similar to seismic traces) e.g. as
wiggle traces.
• Note that the source pulse consists of
more than one wavelength and that it
may have a complex waveshape.
• Ground coupling affects the shape and
duration of down going wavelet and
thus the waveshape of any reflection is
equally complex
 The AFMAG method
❑The AFMAG method (audio-frequency magnetic field) can similarly be used
on land or in the air. The source in this case is the natural electromagnetic
fields generated by thunderstorms and known as sferics
❑Sferics propagate around the Earth between the ground surface and the
ionosphere.
❑Radio atmospheric signals or sferics are broadband electromagnetic impulses
generated by lightning discharges.
❑Earth between the ground surface and the ionosphere. This space constitutes
an efficient electromagnetic waveguide and the low attenuation means that
thunderstorms anywhere in the world make an effective contribution to the
field at any given point.
❑The field also penetrates the subsurface where, in the absence of electrically-
conducting bodies, it is practically horizontal.
The sferic sources are random so that the signal is generally quite
broad-band between 1 and 1000 Hz.
The AFMAG receiver differs from
conventional tilt angle coils since random
variations in the direction and intensity of
the primary field make the identification
of minima impossible with a single coil.
The receiver consists of two orthogonal coils each inclined at 45° to the
horizontal
In the absence of a secondary field the components of the horizontal
primary field perpendicular to the coils are equal and their subtracted
output is zero
The presence of a conductor gives rise to a secondary field which
causes deflection of the resultant field from the horizontal