COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

CHAPTER 1: NATURE OF SCIENCE

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Define science in their own words;
2. Classify scientific research; and
3. Identify the branches of science.

Welcome to the world of science!

You are to undertake a journey where you will acquire a new understanding of the world
around you – the clothes you wear, the food you eat, the interaction of living and non-living things
around you, what you are made of, how wave is produced, and the effect of energy in the world you
live in.

Over the course of human history, people have developed many interconnected and validated
ideas about the physical, biological, psychological, and social worlds. Those ideas have enabled
successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and reliable understanding of the
human species and its environment.

It is the union of science, mathematics, and technology that forms the scientific endeavor and
that makes it so successful. Although each of these human enterprises has a character and history of
its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others.

SCIENCE comes from the Latin word, Scientia which means “to know”. It is a systematic
attempt to establish knowledge that helps explain occurrences through objective means. It employs
skills such as measuring, analyzing, observing, and experimenting. But this employs a strict methods
in obtaining knowledge. It is a continuous search for knowledge, a way of learning how things work.

Science is classified into three, depending on what is being searched. The (1) Pure Science is
the gathering of new information or the discovery of a new relationship or fact. This type of basic
research is performed in merely for the sake of knowledge; (2) Applied Science is the practical use of
scientific information. This type of research uses pure science is used to meet some human purpose
and is often referred to as technology, because it is for the purpose of finding a solution to a problem;
and (3) Technology is the craft, tool, material, instrument, apparatus, method or technique produced
after applying the scientific knowledge. For example, Alexander Fleming, who is often described as a
careless lab technician, returned from a two-week vacation to find that a mold had developed on an
accidentally contaminated staphylococcus culture plate. Upon examination of the mold, he noticed
that the culture prevented the growth of staphylococci. He actually discovered penicillin, made from
the Penicillium notatum mold, but he did not receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine until
1945 for this discovery for he wasn’t able to answer some questions related to his discovery. It was
left to his fellow Nobelists, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, to demonstrate in 1940 that penicillin could
be used as a therapeutic agent to fight a large number of bacterial diseases. Fleming’s discovery of
Penicillium is the pure science part while Florey and Chain who used the idea of Fleming in their
medical research is the applied science, while the medicine they produced is the technology.

Science involves learning everything around us. Since the subject matter is too huge, it gave
birth to what we call as main branches of science. There are two Main branches of science there are

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

(1) the Natural Science seeks to understand the natural world and its different processes. This includes
Physical Science the study of non-living things such as Physics and Chemistry, Life Science the study of
living things such as Biology, and Earth Science the study of the physical constitution of the earth and
its atmosphere such as Geology, Meteorology and Astronomy; and (2) the Social Science which focuses
primarily on the study of people, culture, and society. It includes Economics, Geography, Law,
education, Sociology, and Psychology.

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

CHAPTER 2: SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the different steps in scientific method; and
2. Apply the scientific method in solving problem.

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized
the development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation, applying
rigorous scepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one
interprets the observation.

Steps in Scientific Method

Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new
information or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the
process. A process like the scientific method that involves such backing up and repeating is called an
iterative process.

Whether you are doing a science fair project, a classroom science activity, independent
research, or any other hands-on science inquiry understanding the steps of the scientific method will
help you focus your scientific question and work through your observations and data to answer the
question as well as possible.

The first step in the scientific method is Observation. This refers to the gathering of
information through the use of the senses which leads to the identification of PROBLEM. The problem
is shown by asking questions about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which,
Why, or Where. For a science researches it is always required that the question be something you can
measure, preferably with a number. For example “How does fertilizer affect the growth of 100 mongo
seeds in a pot?” This could be measure by counting the number of seeds that grow in a specific span
of time.

Second, is to do a Background Research that is gathering of additional information with

regards to the problem. Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering
your question, you may be get information through reading printed materials, surfing in the internet
or by interviewing an authority to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you don't
repeat mistakes from the past.

Third, is the Hypothesis also referred to as an educated guess. It is an attempt to answer your
question with an explanation that can be tested. There are two kinds of Hypothesis the Null Hypothesis
which is a negative statement. For example, there is no significant difference between the number of
seeds that grow in the pot with fertilizer and the pot without fertilizer. The word “no” makes the
statement negative. And then, the Alternative Hypothesis which is a positive statement. For example,
there is a significant difference between the number of seeds that grow in the pot with fertilizer and
the pot without fertilizer.

The fourth step is the most important step. It is the part where the researcher gathers the
evidences to back-up his/her claim after the research is done. This step is called the Experimentation.

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It is where a task is performed to determine which statement in the hypothesis is true. In this part the
researcher has to determine the variables and will design the set-ups. There are three kinds of
Variables: the Independent Variable which is the factor/s changed or manipulated; the Dependent
Variable which is the factor/s want to observe or measures; and the Controlled Variables which are
the factors that held constant or kept the same. On the other hand, there are also two kinds also of
Set-ups, the Experimental Set-up which contains the subject of the study and the Control Set-up which
is a normal phenomenon to which the experimental set-up is compared.

Example:
Is there a significant difference between the number of seeds that grow in the
pot with fertilizer and the pot without fertilizer?
Dependent Variable: Independent Variable: Controlled Variables:
Number of seeds that Presence of fertilizer Size of pot
grow in every pot Type of soil
Amount of water
poured in every pot
Length of time expose
to the sunlight

Experimental Set-up (Pot A): Control Set-up (Pot B):

Pot with fertilizer Pot without fertilizer

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The fifth is Analysis, in this step the researcher will be weighing the data gathered to arrive
into a concrete decision as to accept or reject the hypothesis. This will be presented in a statement
called FINDINGS.

Example:
Number of
POT A POT B
Days
1 12 0
2 17 14
3 9 5
4 14 9
5 19 11
6 15 11
7 14 13
Total 100 63
Findings:
1. There is a significant difference between the number of seeds that grow in the
pot with fertilizer and the pot without fertilizer.

The sixth step is Conclusion. It is the general statement of the research based of the findings
of the results. For example, the fertilizer makes the mongo seeds grow faster. Beware that your
conclusion is not a finding like conclusion. For example, “Therefore, there is a significant difference
between the number of seeds that grow in the pot with fertilizer and the pot without fertilizer.”

And lastly, we have Recommendation. It is the part where suggestions either replacement or
adjustment in the variables or method is being presented. For example, the researcher suggest the
use of organic fertilizer.

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Name: _______________________ Section: __________ Date:________

Activity No 3
What will you do?

Materials:
Flashlights
Manila paper
Marker

Direction:
1. Given a flashlight, test it if it works or not by just turning it on and off.
2. If it’s not turning on, write on one side of the Manila paper the possible reasons why
it’s not working.
3. After writing all the possible reasons, investigate what really the cause of its
malfunction.
4. Then write on the other side of Manila paper the real reason of its malfunction.

Copy and answer the following:

1. Which part of the activity is the observation?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

2. What is the problem in the activity?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

3. What is/are your hypotheses?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

4. What is/are your findings?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

5. What is your conclusion?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

CHAPTER 3: MEASUREMENT

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the SI units of measurement and convert from one unit to another;
2. Calculate the corresponding temperature in ℉ or ℃ to K, and vice versa;
3. Differentiate precision and accuracy;
4. Determine the number of significant figures in a given measurement; and
5. Express measurement in scientific notation.

Scientists use many skills as they investigate the world around them. They make observations
by gathering information with their senses. Some observations are simple. For example, a simple
observation would be figuring out the color or texture of an object. However, if scientists want to
know more about a substance, they may need to take measurements. It is perhaps one of the most
fundamental concepts in science. Without the ability to measure, it would be difficult for scientists to
conduct experiments or form theories.

A measurement is a collection of QUANTITAVE DATA also known as numerical data. It comes

from the Greek word metron, which means “limited proportion.” In measuring it require tools and
provide scientists with a quantity. There are two components of measurement the Magnitude
which is the number and the Units the represents the type of quantitative property being measured.

The International System of Units (SI )

For a long time, Metric system was the standard of measurement. But in 1960, a system of
units called the International System of Units (SI ) was established by the 11th General Conference on
Weights and Measurements. Derived from the French words Systeme Internationale, the SI is built
upon a set of seven metric units called the BASE UNITS.

Mass (m) and Weight (w)

The amount of matter in an object is called mass. Its SI Unit is kilogram (kg) but there are also
other units that describe the quantity such as pounds (lb), ounce (oz) and tonne (ton). The platform
balance, electronic balance, triple beam balance, analytical balance are the instrument used in
measuring the mass of the object.

The weight of an object is equal to the force of gravity on the object. This varies with location
and the unit use is Newton (N) means kg·m/s2. Weight is usually misinterpreted with mass. Note that
mass is independent of everything but weight dependent on the force of gravity.

Length (L)
The distance between two points is called length. It can be measured using a meter stick,
ruler, tape measure, steel tape, etc. the SI Unit is meter (m), there are also other units such as foot
(ft), inch (in), yard (yd), mile (mi), and light-year (ly).

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Volume (V)
The volume refers to the space occupied by the object. Its SI Unit is cubic meter (m3) but in
many calculations and laboratory experiments Litre (L) is used other units are barrel (bbl), gallon (gal).
It can be measured using a beaker, graduated cylinder or measuring cups.

Time
The interval between two events is called time. It can be measured using a stop watch or
simply a watch. Its SI unit is second(s), there are also other units such as minute (min), hour (hr), day,
week, month, year, or decade.

Temperature (T)
Temperature measures the hotness and coldness of an object. It can be measured using a
thermometer. It also determines the directions of the heat flow. A glass of hot milk feels hot because
heat is transferred from the hot glass to your hand. Heat always flows from an object with higher
temperature to another object with lower temperature.

There are three scales being used which have the following units Degrees Celsius (°C), Degrees
Fahrenheit (°F) and Kelvin (K). Among the three Kelvin (K) is the SI Unit and is used in any experiment
and calculations. These scales can be converted from one to the other using the following conversion
factors:

To express °C in °F, use

𝟗
TF = TC + 32
𝟓

To express °F in °C, use

𝟓
TC = (TF - 32)
𝟗

To express °C in K, use
TK = TC + 273

Example:
A man from Middle East wants to understand why the temperature reaches 60 °C. He ask help
from the Americans but they only use Degrees Fahrenheit (°F). So the Americans ask him to convert
it.
Given:
TC = 𝟔𝟎 °𝐂

Formula:
𝟗
TF = TC + 32
𝟓

Solution:
𝟗
TF = TC + 32
𝟓
𝟗
TF = ( 𝟔𝟎 °𝐂) + 32
𝟓
𝟓𝟒𝟎
TF = + 32
𝟓
TF = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 + 32

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TF = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 °F

After knowing the temperature the Americans can relate to its hotness, so they ask the
scientist to determine the cause of the high temperature.
Given:
TC = 𝟔𝟎 °𝐂

Formula:
TK = TC + 273

Solution:
TK = TC + 273
TK = 𝟔𝟎 °𝐂 + 273
TK = 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑲

Practice Exercises:
1. 45 °F = _____ °C = _____ K
2. 398 K = _____ °C = _____ °F
3. – 13 °C = _____ K = _____ °F

SI Units use prefixes to indicate the size of the unit relative to the standard unit.
Common Prefixes Used with SI units
Prefix Symbol Meaning
Tera- T 1 000 000 000 000 or 1012
Giga- G 1 000 000 000 or 109
Mega- M 1 000 000 or 106
Kilo- K 1 000 or 103
Deci- d 1/10 or 10-1
Centi- c 1/100 or 10-2
Milli- m 1/1 000 or 10-3
Micro- µ 1/1 000 000 or 10-6
Nano- n 1/1 000 000 000 or 10-9
Pico- p 1/1 000 000 000 000 or 10-12

Example:
5 Kg = _____ mg
Conversion Factors:
1Kg = 103 g
1mg = 10-3g

Solution:
103 g 1 mg
?mg = 5 Kg (1 𝐾𝑔) (10−3 g)
103 mg
?mg = 5 ( )
10−3
?mg = 5 (10 3 + 3) mg

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

?mg = 5 (10 6) mg
?mg = 5 x 10 6 mg

Practice Exercises:
1. 674, 845 pg = _____ Gg
2. 0.7642 Mm = _____ cm
3. 1.34 x 10 6 nL = _____ KL

Derived Quantities/ Units

The combination of the basic units which is used to explain one phenomenon is called derived
units. For example, speed is a derived quantity that shows the relationship between length and time.
It is the ratio of a distance covered by a body to the time taken. When direction is involved speed will
be called VELOCITY and its unit is m/s. the formula is given below:
𝒙 𝒙
v = 𝒕 or v = 𝒕

Density
Another derived quantity that shows the relationship of mass to the volume of an objects is
called density. It is the ratio of mass and volume under a specified temperature and pressure which
has a unit of m/s.

𝑚
ρ= 𝑣

Dimensional Analysis or Factor-Label Method

Formula:

Unit of Unknown = (given) x (conversion factor)

Practice Exercise:
1. A truck travels a distance of 27, 675 m for about 45 min. What is its speed in term of k/h?
2. A car travels at an average speed of 60 kilometer per hour, how long would it take for a car
to travel a distance of 32 km? Express your answer in meters.
3. The density of water is 1 g/mL. If you have a liter and a half of water, what is its mass?

Precision and Accuracy

All measurements from any measuring devises are never exact. The degree of error depends
on the measuring instrument and the person making the measurement. There are two ways of
checking these errors.

Precision is one way of checking measurements. It tells how close several measurements are
to the same value. When this happens, the measurement is said to be precise, but not necessarily
accurate.

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Example:
Three students measure the mass of a piece of copper weighs 3.000 g.
Trial Student A Student B Student C
Trial 1 2.970 g 3.000 g 2. 972 g
Trial 2 2.971 g 3.001 g 2.965 g
Trial 3 2.967 g 3.002 g 2.985 g
Trial 4 2.969 g 3.001 g 2.974 g
If there is a significant difference among the measurements, the precision is low (or poor). If the
measurements differ in small amounts the precision is high (or good). Thus, student B has the most
precise measurements.

Accuracy is another way of checking measurements. It tells how close a measurement is to

the true or accepted value. A measurement that is accurate or has a high accuracy is one that is close
to the true value. So, in the table, student B also has the most accurate measurements being closest
to the true value of 3.000 g

Illustration:
A B C D

Significant Figures
In any measurement, there is always some degree of uncertainty due to experimental error.
For example, the mass determined using a simple balance is 4.8 g. when a more sensitive balance is
used, the same object weighs 4.82 g. In both instances, there is a degree of uncertainty in the final
(last) digit – the 8 in 4.8 g and the 2 in 4.82 g. The preceding digits are certain or definite.

Significant figures include all the digits, whether certain or uncertain. To determine the
number of significant figures obtained from measurement, follow these rules:
1. all nonzero digits are significant
2. all captured zeros (zeros in between non zero digits) are significant
3. trailing zeros (zeros before or after the decimal point) are significant
4. starting zeros (zeros at the beginning of a number)are not significant
5. ending zeros (zeros at the end of the number) are not significant

Example:
a. 25 mL 2 significant figure
b. 5 002 mm 4 significant figure
c. 0.050 Kg 2 significant figure
d. 95.00 m 4 significant figure
e. 0.8007 g 4 significant figure

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In times when the measurement has a lot of digits and a measurement needs to keep either
the number of significant figure or to make the measurement has lesser number of digit, rounding-off
is needed. Here are the rules in Rounding –off:
1. numbers followed by 1 – 4, stays as is
2. numbers followed by 5 is conditional
- if even as is
-if odd, add 1
3. numbers followed by 6 – 9, add 1

Example:
Round-off the following measurement to make it a whole number.
a. 43.565879654332 mg ≈ 44 mg
b. 5.983257843 cm ≈ 6 cm
c. 239.24827578 mL ≈ 239 L
d. 6.5 mm ≈ 6 mm

Scientific Notation
Many numbers used in measurement are either large or very small that the number of zeros
becomes difficult to handle. For accuracy and convenience, these numbers are written in scientific
notation. A number in scientific notation has two parts. The first part is a number between 1.0 to 9.9
(N). The second part is a power of 10 (10y) as shown below
N x 10y
The exponent y can be positive or a negative integer.

To write numbers in scientific notation, move the decimal point such that you have a number
between 1.0 to 9.9. Determine the correct exponent by counting the number of time the decimal point
is moved. When the decimal point is moved to the right, the exponent is written as a negative number.
When the decimal point is moved to the left, the exponent is written as a positive number.

Example:
a. 0.00567 → 5.67 x 10-3
b. 456 000  4.56 x 105

The opposite of scientific notation is known as expanded notation.

Example:
a. 5.67 x 10-3 → 0.00567
b. 4.56 x 105  456 000

Practice Exercise:
Count the significant figure in each measurement and write it scientific notation:
1. 52 400 g
2. 1 005 000 m

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3. 0.000543 cm
4. 0.000000870 mL
5. 2.87 x 105 Kg
6. 5.7 x 10-7 L

Round the following to the specified number of significant figures:

1. 8,977,987,637 (3 significant figures)
2. 28,556 (2 significant figures)
3. 5,587,698 (1 significant figure)
4. 8,174,697 (4 significant figures)

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CHAPTER 4: MATTER: ITS COMPOSITION AND ORGANIZATION

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Compare the properties of the states/phases of matter;
2. Distinguish between physical and chemical properties;
3. Distinguish between physical and chemical changes;
4. Classify a sample of matter as a pure substance and mixture;
5. Differentiate between pure elements and compounds;
6. Differentiate between pure homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture; and
7. Identify the type of heterogeneous mixture.

Everywhere around us we see “thing” – chairs, people, food, cars, plants, animals, and so on.
These “things” are made up of matter. MATTER is anything that occupies space and has a mass.

States or Phases of Matter

From your everyday experience, you know that matter exists in three states of phases – solid,
liquid, gas, and plasma.

A solid has a definite volume and definite shape. Its particles are held together in fixed position
and their motion is restricted. Most solids expand lightly when heated.

A liquid has a fixed volume but does not have a fixed shape. It takes the shape of the container
it occupies. Its particles are free to move because they are held together less tightly than those of
solids. Also it is very slightly compressible.

A gas has neither a fixed volume nor shape because its particles are far apart and have
complete freedom of motion to assume the shape of a closed container and to fill its entire volume.
it is highly compressible.

A plasma is either a gaseous or liquid state of matter in which a part or all of the atoms or
molecules are stripped off of electrons to form positive ions and negative and electrons.

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Properties of Matter
We recognize our friends and relatives by the color of their eyes and hair, the shape of their
body, the way they talk or walk, or some other features they have. A sample of matter can be identified
in the same way. A substance may be identified by a set of properties characteristic of that substance.
These properties are classified into physical and chemical properties.

Physical properties are characteristics of a substance which can be observed without changing
the composition of the substance. Some examples of physical properties are boiling point, melting
point, density, volume, color, odor, shape, hardness, and texture.

Some properties such as melting point and boiling point, color, and odor do not depend on
the amount of the sample. These physical properties, called intensive properties, are useful in
chemistry because they can be used to identify substance. Extensive properties of a substance such
as mass and volume, length, weight, size and shape depend on the amount of the sample.

Chemical properties are characteristics that a substance exhibits when it undergoes changes
in composition. Some chemical properties have the following characteristics: ability to change in odor
such as a fresh coconut milk exposed for several days smells unpleasant; ability to change in color that
is when silver tarnished and turns from a yellowish tint to deep yellow and even black; the ability to
form gas like when vinegar is added to sodium bicarbonate, bubbles are formed; the ability to give off
light and heat like lighting a fireworks; and its ability to form precipitate such as vinegar mixed with
milk. These examples show that the chemical properties of matter are related to the kind of chemical
changes that substance undergo during chemical reactions.
Changes in Matter
The conversion of ice to water, then steam and back is a very useful occurrence. Changes like
these, which do not alter the composition of the substance, are called physical change. Words like
melt, boil, freeze, dissolve, evaporate, condense, cut, bend, crack, crush, or grind indicate a physical
change.

Chemical change involve changes in the composition of substances. Food undergoes chemical
changes as it is being cooked. Words like cook, bake, decompose, combine, corrode, decay, grow, rust,
spoil, and ferment usually signify chemical change.

Exercise:
Classify each as Physical or Chemical change
a. dissolving salt in water _____________________________
b. chopping of wood _____________________________
c. photosynthesis _____________________________
d. carving of ice _____________________________
e. lighting a match _____________________________

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Classification of Matter
Matter is a general term for the substance of which all physical objects consist. Typically, atom
is the basic component of matter. Matter is divided into two – pure substance and mixture.

Pure substance is a material that is composed of only one type of particle. There are also two
types of pure substance, the Elements which is a specie of atoms having the same number of protons
in their atomic nuclei. It is a substance that cannot be broken down to simpler substance by a chemical
change. It is classified as metal, metalloid and non-metals. There are 118 known elements as of 2016;
the four new identified elements were given the following names: Nihonium (113), Moscovium (115),
Tennessine (117) and Oganesson (118) but these names are for public review which will expire this
November 8, 2016, these elements where previously known as ununtrium(113), ununpentium(115),
ununseptium(117) and ununoctium (118) ; the first 94 elements occur naturally on Earth with the
remaining 24 being synthetic elements. These elements are named in different manner, some were
named after famous scientists (Einsteinium from Einstein), country (Americium from America), states
(Californium from California), planets (Plutonium from Pluto), Greek words (Chlorine from chloros
meaning greenish yellow), Latin words (Gold from aurum meaning shiny) and minerals (Magnesium
from magnesia). The name of the elements were represented by a chemical symbols, these symbols
are composed of one or two letters where the first letter is always capitalized (H for hydrogen and Po
for Polonium)

Another type of pure substance is compound is a substance formed when two or more
different kinds of atoms are chemically bonded together. These are the substances that can be broken
down into simpler substances through chemical reaction. Molecules on the hand, are made up of
atoms that are held together by chemical bonds.

Example:
O  is an element, it is an atom of Oxygen
O2  is still an element, it is a molecule of Oxygen
H2O  is a compound, it is made by two different atoms, namely, the
Hydrogen and Oxygen

Compounds are also divided into two. The organic compound which contains carbon and
hydrogen at the same time called hydrocarbons or series of carbon atoms. For example methane (CH4),
and glucose (C6H12O6). The other one is the inorganic compound it is a compound that doesn’t contain
carbon and hydrogen at the same time or not at all such as carbon dioxide (CO 2) it may have carbon
but there’s no Hydrogen. Dihydrogen oxide (H2O) is another example of inorganic substance though it
has hydrogen but there is no carbon. Still another example is Sodium chloride (NaCl), which we call in
common tongue as table salt, is an inorganic compound because it doesn’t have both the carbon and
hydrogen.

Matter is also classified as mixture. It is combinations of two or more substances that can be
separated by physical methods. They have variable compositions. There are two classification of
mixtures – the homogeneous and the heterogeneous.

A homogeneous mixture is a mixture that has a uniform composition and properties as seen
by the naked eye. Solution is the only type of homogeneous mixture. It comes in one phase only.

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Types of Solutions
System Example
Gas in gas Air
Gas in liquid Carbonated beverages
Liquid in gas Vapor in the air
Liquid in liquid 70% ethyl alcohol
Liquid in solid Dental amalgam
Solid in liquid Salt in water
Solid in solid alloys

A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that doesn’t have a uniform in composition. It is consist

of two or more phases. Phase are any part of a system with uniform composition and particles. There
are different types of heterogeneous mixture.
A mixture with particles bigger than that of a solution but smaller than that a suspension is called
colloids. It can pass through filters. The word colloid came from the Greek word kola which means
“glue-like”. The properties of colloid includes turbidity the cloudy and muddy feature of the system,
viscosity which refers to the mixtures resistance to flow, the Brownian Movement the rapid, and
haphazard motion of the particle which was observed under a special microscope by Robert Brown,
a Scottish Botanist, this is the reason why colloidal particles do not settle, the Tyndall effect or the
scattering of light in a colloidal solution which is named after the British Physicist John Tyndall who
discovered it in the course of his study into light beams.

Some Examples of Colloids

Type Colloidal Dispersion Example
Particles Medium
Emulsion Liquid Liquid Mayo
Gel Liquid Solid Gelatin
Liquid Gas Fog
Aerosol
Solid Gas Dust
Gas Liquid Whipped Cream
Foam
Gas Solid Styrofoam
Solid Liquid Paints
Sol
Solid Solid Cement

Suspension is another type of mixture where the suspended particles can be seen and are
large enough to be trapped in a filter, after a while the suspended particles settle at the bottom. For
example, the medicine we let our kids drink when they have fever where a not “shake well before
using” is printed on the bottle. And coarse mixture where the particles can be separated mechanically
and its components are quite visible such as halo-halo or a fruit salad.

Separating Mixture
Mixture can be separated by physical means because each component retains its properties.
Heterogeneous mixtures like coarse mixture can be separated be mechanical means. This involves the
use of spoon and fork, forceps, magnets, and other similar tools. A mixture of sulphur and iron filings
can be separated using a magnet. The iron filing would be attracted to the magnet, leaving the sulphur
behind.

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Some heterogeneous mixtures of solid and liquid can be separated by decantation, filtration,
floatation, centrifugation, and coagulation or sedimentation. Decantation is the pouring of the liquid
from a mixture to separate the liquid (decantate) from the solid particles. Filtration is the pouring of
mixture to a piece of paper (filter paper) which lets the liquid (filtrate) pass through but catches the
solid. Flotation is the removal of suspended particles either by sedimentation or coagulation.
Centrifugation is the settling of tiny suspended particles using a centrifuge.

Decantation Set-up Filtration Set-up

Flotation Set-up Centrifugation Set-up

Homogeneous mixture or solutions can be separated by simple distillation, fractional

distillation, crystallization, and chromatography. Distillation makes use of the differences of boiling
points. In a mixture of two liquids, the liquid with the lower boiling point boils and changes into gas
first. The gas is then condensed back to a liquid (distillate). This is used to separate solid particles from
the liquid. This type of distillation is referred to as simple distillation. Another type of distillation is
called fractional distillation. This type is applicable in separating liquids that differ in boiling points by
just few degrees. This is used in petroleum refineries. Petroleum is separated in its useful parts such
as fuel oils, gasoline, and kerosene.

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Simple Distillation Set-up

Fractional Distillation Set-up

Crystallization occurs when simple seawater is allowed to evaporate. The salt crystallizes out.
This is not limited to liquid solutions. Gemstones like diamonds and emeralds form when molten rocks
cool. Fractional crystallization makes use of lowering the temperature of solutions so that the more
metal component crystallizes out first. The solid is filtered and the same process is repeated until no
more solid crystallizes.

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Example of Fractional Crystallization

Magma crystallizes in the reverse order of partial melting when cooling. The first minerals to
crystallize were the last to melt.

A solution can be separated by allowing it to flow a stationary substance. This is called

chromatography. An ink solution can be separated by passing the solution a piece of paper. The
pigment travel at different speed through the paper.

Sample of Paper Chromatography using ink

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The most familiar and widely used method in separation solution is osmosis. It is movement
of a solvent (as water) through a semipermeable membrane (as living cell) into a solution of higher
solute concentration that tends to equalize the concentrations of solute on the two sides of the
membrane. The best application of this method is dialysis which is the separation of substance in
solution (such as blood) by means of their unequal diffusion through a semipermeable membranes.

Osmosis Set-up

Exercises:
How will you separate the following mixture?
a. sand and sugar
b. sawdust from gravel
c. charcoal from salt

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CHAPTER 5: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Describe Biology.
2. Identify the branches of biology.
3. Recognize levels of organization in plants and animals, including cells, tissues, organs,
organ systems, and organisms.

Biology is the science of life. Its name is derived from the Greek words "bios" (life) and "logos"
(study). Biologists study the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living
organisms.

There are three major branches of biology – botany, zoology and microbiology.

1. Botany is the branch of biology which deals with the study of different aspects of plants.
Theophrastus is known as the father of Botany.

2. Zoology is the branch of biology connected with the study of different aspects of animals.
Aristotle is known as the father of Zoology.

3. Microbiology is the branch of biology dealing with the study of different aspects of
microorganism. Leeuwenhoek is known as the father of Microbiology.

Some of the main branches of biology are briefly discussed below:

1. Taxonomy: It is the science of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms.

2. Morphology: It is the study of external form, size, shape, colour, structure and relative position of
various living organ of living beings.

3. Anatomy: It is the study of internal structure which can be observed with unaided eye after
dissection.

4. Histology: It is the study of tissue organization and structure as observed through light microscope.

5. Cytology: It is the study of form and structure of cells including the behavior of nucleus and other
organelles.

6. Cell Biology: It is the study of morphological, organizational, biochemical, physiological, genetic,

developmental, pathological and evolutionary aspects of cell and its components.

7. Molecular Biology: It is the study of the nature, physicochemical organization, synthesis working
and interaction of bio-molecules that bring about and control various activities of the protoplasm.

8. Physiology: It is the study of different types of body functions and processes.

9. Embryology: It is the study of fertilization, growth, division and differentiation of the zygote into

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embryo or early development of living beings before the attainment of structure and size of the
offspring.

10. Ecology: It is the study of living organisms is relation to other organism and their environment.

11. Genetics: It is the study of inheritance of characters or heredity and variations. Heredity is the
study of expression and transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

12. Eugenics: It is the science which deals with factors related to improvement or impairment of race,
especially that of human beings.

13. Evolution: It studies the origin of life as well as new types of organism from the previous ones by
modifications involving genetic changes and adaptations.

14. Paleontology: It deals with the study of fossils or remains and impressions of past organisms
present in the rocks of different ages.

15. Exobiology: It is the branch of scientific inquiry dealing with the possibility of life in the outer
space.

16. Virology: It is the study of viruses in all their aspects.

Levels of Biological Organization:

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be examined
on a scale from small to large.

 ATOM

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The smallest unit of matter that possesses physical and chemical properties. It
contains the nucleus at its center where protons and neutrons are situated. The electrons are
located outside the nucleus moving around a path called orbit, shell or energy level.

 MOLECULES
Atoms form molecules which are chemical structures consisting of at least two atoms
held together by one or more chemical bonds. They range from small molecules to micro
molecules to large, gigantic macromolecules.
Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large molecules
that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that is made by
combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An
example of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the instructions
for the structure and functioning of all living organisms.

*Small molecules: Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

*Micro molecules: glucose (C6H12O6)
*Macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and DNA.

Figure 1:DNA: All molecules, including this DNAmolecule, are composed of atoms.

 ORGANELLES
Macromolecules can form aggregates within a cell that are surrounded by
membranes; these are called organelles. They are highly organized assemblies of several
macromolecules bonded together to perform a specific function in the cell. They are the “little
organs” of the cell.
Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of these include:
mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions. Mitochondria
produce energy to power the cell while chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy
in sunlight to make sugars.

 CELL

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The collection of organelles that are functioning together. It is considered as the basic
unit of life that is capable of carrying out all the functions of living things.
Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are classified
as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that do not
have membrane-bound nuclei; in contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound
organelles and a membrane-bound nucleus.

 TISSUE
In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells
carrying out similar or related functions.
*Examples: Epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous, parenchyma,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.

 ORGAN
Consists of different tissues organized together to perform a certain function.
*Examples: heart and kidneys

 ORGAN SYSTEM
Consists of several different organs that work together to perform a broad spectrum
of functions.*Examples: Excretory and Reproductive System

 ORGANISM
Is an aggregation of the organ systems that works together to bring about various life
activities.

 POPULATION
A group of organisms of the same species occupying a given area.
*Examples: pride of lions and colony of termites
 COMMUNITY
Consists of all the populations of different species of organisms living together in a
given area.
*Examples: all the species in a rice field and in a fresh water pond.
 ECOSYSYSTEM
Consists of all the community of organisms (biotic components) that inhabit the same
area, as well as the nonliving (abiotic components) of the area and the sets of interactions
that exist between these two components.

*Examples: freshwater pond and a savanna

 BIOME
Pertains to a collection of ecosystems with similar climates and covering a large
geographical area.
*Examples: Grasslands and tropical rain forests

 BIOSPHERE
Consists of the totality of the ecosystems of planet earth. It also pertains to any part
of Earth’s sphere where life exists. It also referred as the world of life.

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MICROSCOPY

Microscopes opened up new worlds for scientists. In 1665, Robert Hooke, used a simple
compound microscope to examine a thin sliver of cork. He observed that the plant tissue consisted of
rectangular units that reminded him of the tiny rooms used by monks. He called these units "cells." In
1676, Anton von Leeuwenhoek published the first drawings of living single celled organisms. Theodore
Schwann added the information that animal tissue is also composed of cells in 1839.
Microscope is a precision instrument and the commonly used tool in conducting biological researches
and in studying objects or organisms or parts of organisms that is not visible with our naked eyes.

Parts and Functions of a Compound Light Microscope:

*Illuminating Parts:

1. Mirror- reflects the light from the source to the specimen.

2. Diaphragm – regulates the amount of light striking the specimen.
3. Ocular/Eyepiece – focuses light to the eye.
4. Objectives – gather light.

*Magnifying Parts:

1. Ocular Lens – enlarges the object six times or ten times.

2. Objective Lenses – they magnify the image.
a. LPO (10X)
b. HPO (40X, 43X, or 45X)
c. OIO (100X)

*Mechanical Parts:

1. Base – supports the entire weight of the microscope.

2. Arm – supports the body tube and the part that is held when the microscope is carried from one
place to another.
3. Body Tube – connects the lenses of the objectives and the ocular
4. Stage – holds the slide.
5. Stage clips – hold the slide firmly in place.
6. Adjustment Screws – move the objectives to bring the specimen into focus.
a. Coarse adjustment screw
b. Fine adjustment screw
7. Revolving nosepiece – a rotating disc that holds the different objectives and allows for the shifting
from one objective to the next.

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The Cell Structure and Function

Early Scientist and the Cell Theory

*1665 Robert Hooke coined the term cell while looking at a slice of cork and describe them as tiny
boxes or honeycomb.

*1673 Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a handmade microscope to observe pond scum and discovered
single cell organisms he called animalcules.

*1838 Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants are made up of cells.

*1839 Theodor Schwann stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells.

*1858 Rudolf Virchow concluded that cells must arise from preexisting cells.

The Components of Cell Theory

The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory are:

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.

3. All cells are produced by the division of the preexisting cell.

Cytology
It is the study of cell structure and activity.

Cells

Trees in a forest, fish in a river, horseflies on a farm, lemurs in the jungle, reeds in a pond,
worms in the soil — all these plants and animals are made of the building blocks we call cells. Like
these examples, many living things consist of vast numbers of cells working in concert with one
another.

Cells are the basic structure and the fundamental unit of all organisms where constant
exchange of matter with and between the cells is in the process of living. The events occurring in the
cells are the basis of growth, reproduction, heredity and embryology of an organism. It is organized
into tissues, organ, system and organism.

In unicellular organism the cell and the organism are one. Unicellular organism like bacteria,
DNA exists as a single loop or chromosome in the cytoplasm. Multicellular organism begin life as one
fertilized cell (sexual reproduction), but the cells multiplied and underwent differentiation (changed
structure & function) to become many different kinds of cells. In the multicellular ones, the cell is
integrated for proper functioning of body parts and starts with a single cell that divides repeatedly to
form a body. Their DNA is enclosed in a membrane known as the nucleus.

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*GENES are short segments of DNA that carry the instruction for a single trait of an organism.
* DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a large molecule containing the hereditary material of the cell. DNA
of a cell contains all of the genes (instructions) it will ever need. All body cells have a complete set of
DNA; different types of cells use certain gene from the set.

*In Sexual reproduction an egg is fertilized by a sperm to form a zygote so the new organism is made
of cells with hereditary information from both parents.

*In Asexual reproduction, cells copy their DNA & split so all new cells are identical.

Types of Cell

Figure 2: Eukaryotik and Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic
- the DNA within a cell is not separated from the cytoplasm. The cells without nuclear
membrane. All known prokaryotes, such as bacteria and archaea, are single cells.

2. Eukaryotic
- the DNA is partitioned off in its own membrane-bound room called the nucleus. The cells
with nuclear membrane. Some eukaryotes, like amoebae, are free-living, single-celled
entities. Other eukaryotic cells are part of multicellular organisms. For instance, all plants
and animals are made of eukaryotic cells

Parts of the Cell

1. Plasma or Cell Membrane

Cell membranes are based on a framework of fat-based molecules called phospholipids,
which physically prevent water-loving, or hydrophilic, substances from entering or escaping the cell.
These membranes are also studded with proteins that serve various functions. Some of these proteins
act as gatekeepers, determining what substances can and cannot cross the membrane. Others

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function as markers, identifying the cell as part of the same organism or as foreign. Still others work
like fasteners, binding cells together so they can function as a unit. Yet other membrane proteins serve
as communicators, sending and receiving signals from neighboring cells and the environment. They
serve also as a complex barrier separating the cell from its external environment and regulates what
passes into and out the cell.

2. Cytoplasm
Within the cell membrane, a cell's interior environment is water based Called cytoplasm. This
liquid environment is packed full of cellular machinery and structural elements. It fills the cell and the
cellular organelles, except the cell nucleus.
In fact, the concentrations of proteins inside a cell far outnumber those on the outside —
whether the outside is ocean water (as in the case of a single-celled alga) or blood serum (as in the
case of a red blood cell). The fluid portion of the cytoplasm is called CYTOSOL (made up of water, ions
salt, organic molecules and many enzymes that catalyze reactions, and a great portion of RNA).
The difference between the animal and plant cytoplasm is that in the animal kingdom, cytoplasm
occupies nearly half the cell volume, while in plant cells, the cytoplasm occupies much less space
because of the presence of vacuoles.

Cell Organelles and Features

A. Nucleus
- most prominent.
- what keeps its shape is the protein skeleton known as the nuclear matrix.
- bilayer membrane (nuclear envelope) encloses a nucleoplasm with higher pH from
cytosol. The nuclear small pores through which proteins from the nucleus can pass.
- the nucleus contains DNA, the hereditary material of cells.
- the control center (brain) of the cell.

B. Mitochondria
- the site of chemical reaction that transfer energy from organic compounds to ATP (the
energy currency of the body).
- -serves as the “powerhouse” of the cell
- It is surrounded by 2 membranes: (a) the smooth outer membrane serves as the boundary
between the mitochondria and the cytosol (b) the inner membrane has many long folds
known as cristae which greatly increases the surface area for the chemical reactions to
occur.
- New mitochondria arise only when existing ones grow and divide.

C. Ribosomes
- most numerous structure.
- some are free in the cytoplasm (free ribosomes) while others line the membrane of rough
endoplasmic reticulum (bound ribosomes).
- no membrane.
- found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- -site of protein synthesis (production or construction) in a cell.

D. Endoplasmic Reticulum

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- an extensive network of membranous. tubules and sacs that connect the nuclear envelope
to the cell wall.
- its function it to transport materials.
- it can be rough (caused by the numerous ribosomes) or smooth (lacks ribosome).

E. Golgi Apparatus
- named after Camilo Golgi.
- a stack of slightly curved saccules called cisternae.
- works closely with the endoplasmic reticulum.
- it modifies proteins for export by the cell.

F. Vacuoles and Vesicles

- are large membranous sac.
- more prominent in plant cell.
- plant vacuoles store water, sugars, salts, pigments and toxic substances to protect plants
from herbivores.

G. Lysosomes
- vesicles that bud off from Golgi apparatus and contain digestive enzymes for intercellular
and extracellular breakdown of materials (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and
phospholipids).

H. Cilia and Flagella

- are hair-like organelles that extend from the surface of the cell, where they assist in
movement.
- cilia are numerous short hair-like projection.
- flagella are long whip like projection which are often singular.

I. Cell Wall
- only found in the plant cell and fungi.
- cell walls of fungi is made up of chitin.
- cell walls of plants are made up of cellulose.
- it helps support and protect the plants cell.

J. Chloroplasts
- a plastid that contains the green pigment chlorophyll.
- it is present only in plant cells and where photosynthesis happen

Label the following organelles of a Plant and Animal Cells below and give their functions:

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CHAPTER 6: HUMAN SYSTEM

The Human System

Have you ever wondered how your food is digested, or how you can breathe, or even move
your arms? If you think about it, it's pretty amazing that the human body can do all of these things
and more. These actions are made possible by what are called organ systems which are collections of
organs, body parts and tissues that work together for a common goal. For example, each one of your
bones is part of the skeletal system; they work collectively to provide support and movement so that
you can walk and run. Your bones also work together to protect your important internal organs, such
as the heart, lungs and brain. Other organ systems present in your body are the circulatory,
respiratory, muscular, digestive, integumentary, endocrine, reproductive, and nervous systems. All of
these systems have specific functions but they cannot function independently, meaning that they rely
on all the other systems in order to work properly. Each system is very important and every person
has them. Below you will find a brief overview of each body system.

Endocrine System
Objective: The students will be able to
a. Identify the parts and functions of the Endocrine System
b. List the different hormones in the body

Endocrine System
• Main function of this system is to help regulate and maintain assorted functions of the body
by releasing hormones into the bloodstream to maintain homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is the condition of maintaining balance within the body in relation to its external
environment and is vital for life.
• Hormones are chemical messenger / substances produced by a gland, or glands, to affect
other parts of the body.
• Together these glands are responsible for growth and development, breathing and heart rate,
reproduction, metabolism, mood, sleep, tissue function, digestion, the release of insulin, and
much more.
The major glands that make up the endocrine system are the:
a. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is in the lower central part of the brain. It links the
endocrine system and nervous system. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus make chemicals that
control the release of hormones secreted from the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus gathers
information sensed by the brain (such as the surrounding temperature, light exposure, and
feelings) and sends it to the pituitary. This information influences the hormones that the
pituitary makes and releases.
b. Pituitary: The Pituitary gland is at the base of the brain, and is no bigger than a pea. Despite
its small size, the pituitary is often called the "master gland." The hormones it makes control
many other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland makes many hormones, such as:
- growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a
role in the body's handling of nutrients and minerals
- prolactin which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding
- thyrotropin which stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones
- corticotrophin which stimulates the adrenal gland to make certain hormones
- antidiuretic hormone, which helps control body water balance through its effect on the
kidneys
- oxytocin which triggers the contractions of the uterus that happen during labor

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c. Thyroid: The thyroid is in the front part of the lower neck. It's shaped like a bow tie or
butterfly. It makes the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine these hormones
control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to make energy. The more thyroid hormone
there is in the bloodstream, the faster chemical reactions happen in the body. Thyroid hormones
are important because they help kids' and teens' bones grow and develop, and they also play a
role in the development of the brain and nervous system.
d. Parathyroid: Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that work together. They release
parathyroid hormone, which controls the level of calcium in the blood with the help of
calcitonin, which the thyroid makes.
e. Adrenal Glands: These two triangular adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney. The adrenal
glands have two parts, each of which makes a set of hormones and has a different function:
- The outer part is the adrenal cortex. It makes hormones called corticosteroids that
help control salt and water balance in the body, the body's response to stress, metabolism,
the immune system, and sexual development and function.
- The inner part is the adrenal medulla. It makes catecholamine, such as epinephrine.
Also called adrenaline, epinephrine increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body is
under stress.
f. Pineal: The pineal body, also called the pineal gland, is in the middle of the brain. It secretes
melatonin, a hormone that may help regulate when you sleep at night and when you wake in
the morning.
g. Reproductive Glands: The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. Most people don't
realize it, but both guys and girls have gonads.
• In guys the male gonads or testes are in the scrotum. They secrete hormones called
androgens, the most important of which is testosterone. These hormones tell a guy's
body when it's time to make the changes associated with puberty, like penis and height
growth, deepening voice, and growth in facial and pubic hair. Working with hormones
from the pituitary gland, testosterone also tells a guy's body when it's time to make
sperm in the testes.
• A girl's gonads, the ovaries are in her pelvis. They make eggs and secrete the female
hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is involved when a girl starts puberty.
During puberty, a girl will have breast growth, start to accumulate body fat around the
hips and thighs, and have a growth spurt. Estrogen and progesterone are also involved
in the regulation of a girl's menstrual cycle. These hormones also play a role in
pregnancy.
h. Pancreas: The pancreas makes insulin and glucagon which are hormones that control the level
of glucose, or sugar, in the blood. Insulin helps keep the body supplied with stores of energy.
The body uses this stored energy for exercise and activity, and it also helps organs work as they
should.

 Integumentary System

Objective:
The students will be able to
a. Identify the parts and functions of the Integumentary System
b. Differentiate the three layers of tissue

Integumentary System

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This system performs several functions that are vital to maintaining homeostasis. These
functions are: protecting the body’s internal organs and tissues; protection from dehydration by
helping to retain body fluids; protection from infectious organisms; maintaining a body temperature
that is consistent with life; receptor site for pressure, sensation, pain, and temperature; excretion of
waste materials through sweating; storing fat, water, and glucose; production of vitamin D.
Skin is the largest organ in the body and is made up of three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and
subcutaneous tissue.
Hair is responsible for helping to protect the skin from ultraviolet radiation, while nails help to protect
from injury and provide support for the tips of the fingers and toes.
The human skin is composed of three layers of tissue:
a. Epidermis: the top layer of skin. It does not contain blood vessels. The epidermis is about
one-tenth of a millimeter thick.
b. Dermis: the middle layer of skin is composed of the papillary layer and the Reticular layer.
These layers provide elasticity.
c. Hypodermis: the deepest layer of skin helps insulate the body and cushion internal
organs. The hypodermis is composed of adipose tissue that stores excess energy as fat.

 Nervous System
Objective:
The students will be able to
a. Identify the parts and functions of the Nervous System
b. Differentiate Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System

Nervous System
The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body, including
internal organs. In this way, the nervous system’s activity controls the ability to move, breathe, see,
think, and more. It is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that
transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body's electrical wiring.
The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell, or neuron. The human brain contains
about 100 billion neurons. A neuron has a cell body, which includes the cell nucleus, and special
extensions called axons and dendrites. Bundles of axons, called nerves, are found throughout the
body. Axons and dendrites allow neurons to communicate, even across long distances.
Different types of neurons control or perform different activities. For instance, motor neurons transmit
messages from the brain to the muscles to generate movement. Sensory neurons detect light, sound,
odor, taste, pressure, and heat and send messages about those things to the brain. Other parts of the
nervous system control involuntary processes. These include keeping a regular heartbeat, releasing
hormones like adrenaline, opening the pupil in response to light, and regulating the digestive system.
It has two components:
Central nervous system – made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It acts as the control center
of the body by providing its processing, memory, and regulation systems. Also, is responsible for the
higher functions of the nervous system such as language, creativity, expression, emotions, and
personality.
Brain - lies within the skull and is shaped like a mushroom. It is the seat of higher mental functions
such as consciousness, memory, planning, and voluntary actions, also controls lower body functions
such as the maintenance of respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. The brain consists
of three principal parts:
a. Brain stem – also known as the Medulla oblongata. It is located between the pons and the
spinal cord and is only about one inch long.

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b. Cerebrum – contains the information that essentially makes us who we are: our
intelligence, memory, personality, emotion, speech, and ability to feel and move.
c. Cerebellum – also called the "little brain" because it looks like a small version of the
cerebrum — is responsible for balance, movement, and coordination.
Spinal Cord - a long, thin mass of bundled neurons that carries information through the vertebral
cavity of the spine beginning at the medulla oblongata of the brain on its superior end and continuing
inferiorly to the lumbar region of the spine.
Nerves - bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that act as information highways to
carry signals between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body.

Peripheral nervous system – consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves
that connect to one another and to the central nervous system
Nerve Cells – Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by transmitting
electrochemical signals. Neurons look quite different from other cells in the body due to the many
long cellular processes that extend from their central cell body. The cell body is the roughly round part
of a neuron that contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and most of the cellular organelles. Small tree-
like structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up stimuli from the environment,
other neurons, or sensory receptor cells.
It has two main subdivisions:
a. Somatic nervous system, or voluntary component – consists of nerves that connect the
brain and spinal cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin.
b. Autonomic nervous system or involuntary component – certain body processes, such as
blood pressure and the rate of breathing, which work without conscious effort.

Activity: Answer the following questions.

1. What is the main function of neuron?
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the functions of the major regions of the brain stem?
________________________________________________________________________
3. Differentiate somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
________________________________________________________________________
4. What made up the Central Nervous System?
________________________________________________________________________
5. Differentiate the two main subdivisions of Nervous System.
________________________________________________________________________

 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Objectives:
The students will be able to
a. Identify the parts and function of Female
and Male Reproductive System
b. Differentiate the female and Male
Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

- whose sex organs are located entirely within the
pelvis

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- All the parts of your body that help you reproduce, or have babies.
- It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is
designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization. Your body likely has hundreds of thousands
of eggs that could grow into a baby. And you have them from the time you’re born. Right inside you
is a perfect place for those eggs to meet with sperm and grow a whole human being!

Labia Majora – the outer *It is normal for the labia to look
Labia Minora – the inner lips. different from each other.
Clitoris – a small, sensitive bump at the bottom of the mons pubis that is covered by the labia minora.
Vagina – like a tube that can grow wider to deliver a baby that has finished growing inside the uterus.
Cervix – the narrow entryway in between the vagina and uterus. The cervix is flexible so it can expand
to let a baby pass through during childbirth.
Uterus (or womb) — is where a baby would grow. It
takes several days for the egg to get to the uterus.
Fallopian Tube – connect the ovaries to the uterus. The
released egg moves along a fallopian tube.
Ovaries – two small organs. Before puberty, it’s as if the
ovaries are asleep. During puberty, they “wake up.” The
ovaries start making more estrogen and other
hormones, which cause body changes. One important
body change is that these hormones cause you to start
getting your period, which is called menstruating.

Male Reproductive System

The male has reproductive organs, or genitals, that are both inside and outside the pelvis. The
following functions are:
- To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective
fluid (semen)
- To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
- To produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the male
reproductive system

Penis – actually made up of two parts: shaft is the

main part of the penis and the glans is the tip
(sometimes called the head). At the end of the
glans is a small slit or opening, which is where
semen and urine exit the body through the
urethra. The inside of the penis is made of a spongy
tissue that can expand and contract.
Scrotum – this bag of skin helps to regulate the
temperature of testicles, which need to be kept
cooler than body temperature to produce sperm.
Epididymis – a set of coiled tubes (one for each
testicle) that connects to the vas deferens.
Prostate Gland - which produces some of the parts
of semen, surrounds the ejaculatory ducts at the
base of the urethra

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Testis – (testicles) produce and store millions of tiny sperm cells. The testicles are oval-shaped and
grow to be about 2 inches (5 centimeters) in length and 1 inch (3 centimeters) in diameter.
 All boys are born with a foreskin, a fold of skin at the end of the penis covering the glans. Some
boys have a circumcision, which means that a doctor or clergy member cuts away the foreskin.
 Although circumcision is not medically necessary, parents who choose to have their children
circumcised often do so based on religious beliefs, concerns about hygiene, or cultural or
social reasons. Penises work the same, whether they are circumcised or not.
 When puberty begins, usually between the ages of 9 and 15, the pituitary gland — which is
located near the brain — secretes hormones that stimulate the testicles to produce
testosterone. The production of testosterone brings about many physical changes.

 Skeletal System

Objective:
The students will be able to
a. Identify the different parts and functions of Skeletal System
b. Differentiate the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton

Skeletal System
The human skeletal system consists of all of the bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments in
the body. Altogether, the skeleton makes up about 20 percent of a person’s body weight. An adult’s
skeleton contains 206 bones. Children’s skeletons actually contain more bones because some of them,
including those of the skull, fuse together as they grow up. There are also some differences in the male
and female skeleton. The male skeleton is usually longer and has a high bone mass. The female
skeleton, on the other hand, has a broader pelvis to accommodate for pregnancy and child birth.
Regardless of age or sex, the skeletal system can be broken down into two parts, known as the axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

Skull – skeletal framework of the head of vertebrates composed of bones or cartilage, which forms a
unit that protects the brain and some sense organs. The adult skull comprises 22 bones. These bones
can be further classified by location:
 Cranial bones. The eight cranial bones form the bulk of your skull. They help to protect your
brain.
 Facial bones. There are 14 facial bones. They’re found on the front of the skull and make up
the face.
Hyoid – U-shaped bone found at the base of the jaw. It serves as a point of attachment for muscles
and ligaments in the neck.
Auditory Ossicles - six small bones found within the inner ear canal in the skull. There are three
auditory ossicles on each side of the head, known as the: malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes
(stirrup). They work together to transmit sound waves from the surrounding environment to the
structures of the inner ear.
Vertebral column – made up 26 bones. The first 24 are all vertebrae, followed by the sacrum and
coccyx (tailbone). The 24 vertebrae can be further divided into the:
 Cervical vertebrae. These seven bones are found in the head and neck.
 Thoracic vertebrae. These 12 bones are found in the upper back.

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 Lumbar vertebrae. These five bones are found in the lower back.
The sacrum and coccyx are both made up of several fused vertebrae. They help support the weight of
the body while sitting. They also serve as attachment points for various ligaments.
Thoracic Cage – made up of the sternum (breastbone) and 12 pairs of ribs. These bones form a
protective cage around the organs of the upper torso, including the heart and lungs. Some of the ribs
attach directly to the sternum, while others are linked to the sternum via cartilage. Some have no
attachment point and are referred to as “floating ribs.”

Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)

Pectoral girdle – where the arms attach to the axial skeleton. It’s made up of the clavicle (collarbone)
and scapula (shoulder blade). There are two of each of these — one for each arm.
Upper limbs – each arm contains 30 bones, known as the:
 Humerus. The humerus is the long bone of the upper arm.
 Radius. The radius is one of two long bones of the forearm, found on the thumb side.
 Ulna. The ulna is the second long bone of the forearm, found on the pinky finger side.
 Carpals. The carpals are a group of eight bones found in the wrist area.
 Metacarpals. The metacarpals are five bones found in the middle area of the hand.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that make up the fingers.
Pelvic girdle – commonly known as the hips, is where the legs attach to the axial skeleton. It’s made
up of two hipbones — one for each leg. Each hip bone consists of three parts, known as the:
 Ilium. The ilium is the top portion of each hip bone.
 Ischium. The ischium is a curved bone that makes up the base of each hip bone.
 Pubis. The pubis is located in the front part of the hip bone.
Lower limbs – each leg is composed of 30 bones, known as the:
 Femur. The femur is the large bone of the upper leg.
 Tibia. The tibia is the main bone of the lower leg. It forms the shin.
 Fibula. The fibula is the second bone in the lower leg, found in the outer leg.
 Patella. The patella is also called the kneecap.
 Tarsals. The tarsals are the seven bones that make up the ankle.
 Metatarsal. The metatarsals are the five bones that make up the middle area of the foot.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that comprise the toes.

 Muscular System

Visceral Muscle
Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. The
weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances through the
organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as
involuntary muscle—it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. The term “smooth
muscle” is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very smooth, uniform appearance
when viewed under a microscope. This smooth appearance starkly contrasts with the banded
appearance of cardiac and skeletal muscles.
Cardiac Muscle
Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.
Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle. While hormones
and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract.

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The natural pacemaker of the heart is made of cardiac muscle tissue that stimulates other cardiac
muscle cells to contract. Because of its self-stimulation, cardiac muscle is considered to be auto
rhythmic or intrinsically controlled.
The cells of cardiac muscle tissue are striated—that is, they appear to have light and dark
stripes when viewed under a light microscope. The arrangement of protein fibers inside of the cells
causes these light and dark bands. Striations indicate that a muscle cell is very strong, unlike visceral
muscles.
Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body—it is controlled
consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g. speaking, walking, or
writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to move parts of the
body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two
bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other.
Skeletal muscle cells form when many smaller progenitor cells lump themselves together to form long,
straight, multinucleated fibers. Striated just like cardiac muscle, these skeletal muscle fibers are very
strong. Skeletal muscle derives its name from the fact that these muscles always connect to the
skeleton in at least one place.

 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the parts and functions of Digestive System.
2. Locate the parts of Digestive System.

Digestive System
What happens when you eat? That's a reasonable question and certainly one that has gone
through the mind of a child more than once. A unit on digestion helps children understand what
happens the moment they taste cookies, carrots, or corn. From the fact that we have more than
10,000 taste buds and that some of them are under the tongue, tasting is just the beginning of the
process.
The food we eat is processed as it moves through the stomach and intestines. A classroom
unit on digestion is also a great time to talk about health and nutrition. For example fiber helps move
food through the digestive tract. Other foods, when consumed together, help the body absorb the
nutrients, providing more energy and good health.

Mouth
– the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts here as soon as you take the first bite of
a meal. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with
food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use. Teeth (tear/
cut the food), Saliva (softens the food), and Tongue (pushes the food to the esophagus).

Throat
- Also called the pharynx, the throat is the next destination for food you've eaten. From here, food
travels to the esophagus or swallowing tube.

Esophagus

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– a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach where the food are pushed to the
stomach through the wavelike contraction known as peristalsis.

Stomach
– a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In addition to holding the food, it's also a mixer and
grinder. The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that continue the process of breaking down
the food. When it leaves the stomach, food is the consistency of a liquid or paste. From there the food
moves to the small intestine.

Accessory Organs:

Liver
– has many functions, but two of its main functions within the digestive system are to make and
secrete bile, and to cleanse and purify the blood coming from the small intestine containing the
nutrients just absorbed.

Pancreas
– secretes enzymes into the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fat, and
carbohydrates from the food we eat.

Small Intestine
– Made up of three segments, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, the small intestine is a long tube
loosely coiled in the abdomen (spread out, it would be more than 20 feet long). The small intestine
continues the process of breaking down food by using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from
the liver. Bile is a compound that aids in the digestion of fat and eliminates waste products from
the blood. Peristalsis (contractions) is also at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it
up with digestive secretions. The duodenum is largely responsible for continuing the process of
breaking down food, with the jejunum and ileum being mainly responsible for the absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream.

Large intestine
– colon is a 5- to 6-foot-long muscular tube that connects the cecum (the first part of the large
intestine to the rectum (the last part of the large intestine). It is made up of the cecum, the ascending
(right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon (so-
called for its "S" shape; the Greek letter for S is called the sigma), which connects to the rectum

Gallbladder
- The gallbladder is a pear-shaped reservoir that sits just under the liver and stores bile. Bile is made
in the liver then if it needs to be stored travels to the gallbladder through a channel called the cystic
duct. During a meal, the gallbladder contracts, sending bile to the small intestine.

Rectum
- The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the
rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let you know there is stool to be evacuated, and to
hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors
send a message to the brain.

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Anus
– the last part of the digestive tract.

 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs, which carry out
this exchange of gases as we breathe. The human body needs oxygen to sustain itself. After only about
five minutes without oxygen, brain cells begin dying, which can lead to brain damage and ultimately
death.
In humans, the average breathing, or respiratory rate, mostly depends on age. A new-born’s
normal breathing rate is about 40 to 60 times each minute and may slow to 30 to 40 times per minute
when the baby is sleeping. The average resting respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 16 breaths per
minute, and up to 40 to 60 breaths per minute during exercise.

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The nose and nasal cavity form the main external opening for the respiratory system and are the first
section of the body’s airway—the respiratory tract through which air moves.
Nose – a structure of the face made of cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin that supports and
protects the anterior portion of the nasal cavity.
Nasal cavity – a hollow space within the nose and skull that is lined with hairs and mucus
membrane. The function of the nasal cavity is to warm, moisturize, and filter air entering the
body before it reaches the lungs. Hairs and mucus lining the nasal cavity help to trap dust, mold,
pollen and other environmental contaminants before they can reach the inner portions of the
body. Air exiting the body through the nose returns moisture and heat to the nasal cavity before
being exhaled into the environment.
Mouth - also known as the oral cavity, the secondary external opening for the respiratory tract.
Most normal breathing takes place through the nasal cavity, but the oral cavity can be used to
supplement or replace the nasal cavity’s functions when needed. Because the pathway of air
entering the body from the mouth is shorter than the pathway for air entering from the nose,
the mouth does not warm and moisturize the air entering the lungs as well as the nose performs
this function. The mouth also lacks the hairs and sticky mucus that filter air passing through the
nasal cavity. The one advantage of breathing through the mouth is that its shorter distance and
larger diameter allows more air to quickly enter the body.
Pharynx - also known as the throat, a muscular funnel that extends from the posterior end of
the nasal cavity to the superior end of the esophagus and larynx. Because the pharynx is also
used to swallow food, the epiglottis ensures that air passes into the trachea by covering the
opening to the esophagus. During the process of swallowing, the epiglottis moves to cover the
trachea to ensure that food enters the esophagus and to prevent choking.
Larynx - also known as the voice box, a short section of the airway that connects the
laryngopharynx and the trachea.
Trachea ( C-shaped cartilages) - or windpipe, is a 5-inch long tube made of C-shaped hyaline
cartilage rings lined with pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium. The trachea connects
the larynx to the bronchi and allows air to pass through the neck and into the thorax. The main
function of the trachea is to provide a clear airway for air to enter and exit the lungs. In addition,
the epithelium lining the trachea produces mucus that traps dust and other contaminants and
prevents it from reaching the lungs. Cilia on the surface of the epithelial cells move the mucus
superiorly toward the pharynx where it can be swallowed and digested in the gastrointestinal
tract.
Bronchi/ bronchus — the name for just one of the bronchi — then branches off into tubes, or
bronchi, that get smaller and even smaller still, like branches on a big tree.
Bronchioles – tiniest tubes, there are about 30,000 of them in each lung. Each bronchiole is
about the same thickness as a hair.
Lungs - a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the heart and superior to the
diaphragm.
Alveoli – grapelike structures that lined the lungs and where exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide happens.

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 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is a vast network of organs
and blood vessels that acts both as a delivery and waste removal system for the body. Nutrients,
oxygen and hormones are delivered to every cell and as these necessities are provided, waste products
such as carbon dioxide are removed.
Not only does the circulatory system keep our cells healthy, but it also keeps us alive. The
heart constantly receives signals from the rest of the body that direct how hard it needs to pump to
properly supply the body with what it needs, according to Nemours. For example, when asleep, the
body sends electrical signals to the heart that tell it to slow down. When participating in heavy
exercise, the heart receives the message to pump harder to deliver extra oxygen to the muscles.

The Heart
The heart lies at the center of the circulatory system and pumps blood through the rest of the
network. This hollow muscle is made up of four chambers:
1. Right and left Atrium – two chambers at the top
2. Right and left Ventricle – form the two chambers at the bottom

*The septum separates the atria and ventricles in such a way that it forms a barrier between the heart
chambers and this prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
*The heart has four valves - one for each chamber of the heart. The valves keep blood moving through
the heart in the right direction.

The contraction and relaxation of the heart – the heartbeat – is controlled by the sinus node, which is
a cluster of cells situated at the top of the right atrium. The sinus node sends electrical signals through
the electrical conduction system of the heart that direct the muscle to contract or relax.

Blood Vessels
*Arteries – takes oxygen-rich blood away from your heart
*Veins – take blood toward your heart
*Capillaries – tiny blood vessels that connects the arteries and the veins

Blood
Blood is the body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers the essential materials for
life to the body’s cells. It has sometimes been called a fluid “tissue,” because like solid tissues it
contains several types of cells which perform complex functions for the human body. The most vital
components of blood, including serum, white blood cells or “leukocytes,” red blood cells, and
platelets.
*Plasma is the liquid which carries the red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other
substances found in blood. More than half the volume of our blood is composed of this fluid.
*Red blood cells can be thought of as the cargo ships of the body. They are small; numerous cells
which are specifically designed to carry oxygen from the lungs to cells, and carry carbon dioxide back
to the lungs to be expelled when we exhale.
Red blood cells contain hemoglobin – a protein which is beautifully tailored to bind aggressively to
oxygen in the lungs, and then release it and pick up carbon dioxide at a slow, steady rate as it passes
through the body.

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Hemoglobin is a pigment which changes color slightly, depending on whether it is bound to

a molecule of oxygen or not. That’s why blood drawn from veins, which carry oxygen-depleted blood
back toward the lungs, is a dark red that can appear almost brown. Blood drawn from arteries, which
carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the tissues, is a bright red.
*White blood cells perform both immune and clean-up functions for the body. Like red blood cells,
they are made by stem cells in the bone marrow. There are many types of white blood cells, which
play many different roles in immune response to infection and injury.

*Platelets are cell fragments – bits of membrane-bound cytoplasm – which stop bleeding by clumping
together to form clots and scabs seal wounds. Like red and white blood cells, they are made in the
bone marrow.

Adult humans have a total of about five to six

quarts (a little less than five to six liters) of blood
pumping through their bodies. On average, the
heart pumps about 100,000 times per day, pushing
about 2,000 gallons (7,570 liters) of blood through
a total of 60,000 miles (96,560 kilometers) of
blood vessels. It only takes about 20 seconds for
blood to travel through the entire circulatory
system.

How the circulatory system works?

The rest of the circulatory system is made up of

two independent networks that work together:
1. The pulmonary system is responsible for providing fresh oxygen to the blood and removing
carbon dioxide. Oxygen-poor blood arrives from veins leading to the right atrium of the heart.
The blood is then pumped through the right ventricle, and then through the pulmonary artery,
which splits off into two and divides into increasingly smaller arteries and capillaries before
entering the lungs. The tiny capillaries form a network within the lungs that facilitate the
exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. From the lungs, the oxygen-rich blood flows back
toward the heart
2. The systemic system of arteries, veins and capillaries takes over. Arteries and veins are not
the same, although they are both types of blood vessels. Arteries carry oxygen- and nutrient-
rich blood from the heart to all parts of your body. Veins carry the oxygen- and nutrient-poor
blood back to the heart. The capillaries are the smallest type of blood vessel, and provide the
bridge between the arteries and veins.

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 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The excretory system consists of organs which remove metabolic wastes and toxins from the body.
In humans, this includes the removal of urea from the bloodstream and other wastes produced by the
body. The removal of urea happens in the kidneys, while solid wastes are expelled from the large
intestine.
The excretory system in humans consists mainly of the kidneys and bladder. The kidneys filter urea
and other waste products from the blood, which are then added to the urine within the bladder. Other
organs, such as the liver, process toxins but put their wastes back into the blood. It is up to the kidneys
to filter the blood so that toxic substances do not accumulate.

The kidneys are paired, bean-shaped organs located in

the abdomen, on either side of the spine, under the
diaphragm. They are made of a large number of
structural and functional subunits
called nephrons. These nephrons perform the primary
task of filtering blood and removing waste products.

The urinary bladder is a sac-like structure with muscular

walls that holds urine until it is expelled from the body
during micturition. The bladder receives urine through
two ureters – one from each kidney –that enter through
openings called ureteric orifices. These orifices are
located at the convex fundus of the organ. Urine exits
the bladder through the urethra. In men, the bladder
lies on the pelvic floor in front of the rectum. In women,
it is located near the uterus, leading to a number of
changes to the patterns of micturition during the course of pregnancy.

The urethra is a muscular tube that carries urine out of the body. Urine leaves the body through
another sphincter in the process of urination.

The liver is the main detoxifying organ of the body, especially for nitrogenous wastes. The cells of the
liver play host to biochemical processes that create ammonia from amino acids. Since ammonia is
extremely toxic, it is quickly converted to urea before being transported in the blood towards the
kidney.

The liver is also necessary for the removal of the decomposed hemoglobin, some drugs, excess
vitamins, sterols, and other lipophilic substances. These are secreted along with bile and finally
removed from the body through feces. The large intestine, therefore, plays a role in excretion.

The skin is a secondary excretory organ since sweat glands in the dermis can remove salts and some
excess water. The skin also has sebaceous glands that can secrete waxy lipids.

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 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation

Objective:
The student will be able to:
a. Differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction in terms of: number of individuals and
similarities of offspring to parents
b. Describe the process of fertilization
Reproduction
- The process of creating new organisms from existing individuals

Types of Reproduction:
a. Sexual Reproduction
- requires both a male and a female
- A process that involves the union of sex cells or gametes (sperm cell and egg cell)
- Gametes are produced by Meiosis. The sperm cell is called spermatogenesis while the egg cell
is called oogenesis.
b. Asexual Reproduction
- only involves one organism

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Number of organisms One parent needed Two parents are required to
involved mate
Cell division Cells divide by Fission, budding , or Cells divide by Meiosis
regeneration
Types Budding, vegetative reproduction, Syngamy and conjugation
fragmentation, spore formation
Advantages Time Efficient; no need to search for Variation, Unique., organism is
mate, requires less energy more protected
Disadvantages No variation - if the parent has a genetic Requires two organisms,
disease, offspring does too. requires more energy
Evolution There is very little chance of variation Sexual reproduction leads to
with asexual reproduction. Mutations genetic variation in new
in DNA can still occur but not nearly as generations of offspring. This is
frequently as in sexual reproduction. fundamental to evolution.
Involvement of sex No formation or fusion of gametes (sex Formation and fusion of
cells cell) gametes (sex cell) occurs
Found in Lower organisms Higher invertebrates and all
vertebrates
Unit of reproduction May be whole parent body or a bud or a Gamete
fragment or a single somatic cell
Time taken Asexual reproduction is completed in a Sexual reproduction can take
very short period of time. several months to complete.
Number of offspring Two or more One or more

 Ecosystem

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Objective:
The student will be able to
a. Differentiate the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem.
b. Identify the different biomes
c. Describe the different ecological relationships found in an ecosystem.

Ecosystem
- Short for ecological systems
- Includes all of the living organisms in a specific area; the plants and animals interacting with
their non-living environments (weather, Earth, Sun, soil and atmosphere).
Biomes
A large area on the Earth's surface that is defined by the types of animals and plants living
there. A biome can be partially defined by the local climate patterns. You may also have more than
one type of biome within a larger climate zone. Here is a short list of possible biomes.
a. Tropical Rainforest (Think about Brazil)
b. Tropical Savanna (Think about Africa)
c. Desert (Think about the middle east)
d. Mediterranean Woodland (Think about coniferous forests)
e. Mid-latitude Grassland (Think about Oklahoma)
f. Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest (Think about the east coast of North America)
g. Tundra (Think about frozen plains of Alaska)
h. Ice Caps (Think about the poles)
You are very important to the survival of the system no matter what role you play. Everyone plays a
specific role in the food chain of life.

Food chain
- a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats
another
- Only follows just one path as animals find food.
- A hawk eats a snake, which has eaten a frog, which has eaten a grasshopper, which has eaten
grass.
Food web
- Is more realistic representation of consumption relationships in ecosystems
- Shows the many different paths plants and animals are connected; several food chains
connected together.
- A hawk might also eat a mouse, a squirrel, a frog or some other animal. The snake may eat a
beetle, a caterpillar, or some other animal. And so on for all the other animals in the food
chain.

Autotrophs
Also known as self-feeders can make their own food—that is, their own organic compounds—
out of simple molecules like carbon dioxide. There are two basic types of autotrophs:

a. Photoautotrophs, such as plants, use energy from sunlight to make organic compounds—
sugars—out of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Other examples of photoautotrophs
include algae and cyanobacteria.
b. Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemicals to build organic compounds out of carbon
dioxide or similar molecules. This is called chemosynthesis. For instance, there are hydrogen

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sulfide-oxidizing chemoautotrophic bacteria found in undersea vent communities where no

light can reach.

Heterotrophs
Also known as other-feeders can't capture light or chemical energy to make their own food
out of carbon dioxide. Humans are heterotrophs. Instead, heterotrophs get organic molecules by
eating other organisms or their byproducts. Animals, fungi, and many bacteria are heterotrophs.

Producers
At the beginning of every food chain that involves the Sun. All energy comes from the Sun and
plants are the ones who make food with that energy. They use the process of photosynthesis. Plants
also make loads of other nutrients for other organisms to eat. There are also photosynthetic protists
that start food chains. You might find them floating on the surface of the ocean acting as food for
small unicellular animals.

Consumers
- Next link in a food chain.
- There are three levels of consumers.
a. Primary consumers (herbivores) –
levels start with the organisms that eat
plants. They are the plant eaters of the
chain.
b. Secondary consumers (carnivores) –
eat the primary consumers. Carnivore
means "meat eater."
c. Tertiary consumer – consumers that
eat the secondary and primary
consumers.

*Omnivores – either be secondary or tertiary

consumers. Omnivores eat meat, plants, and anything.
* Predators – kill for food. They are either secondary
or tertiary consumers - e.g. polar bears, golden eagles
*Prey – the organisms that predators feed on.
Examples of predator and prey species are: fox and
rabbit; blue tit and caterpillar; wolf and lamb
*Scavenger – a consumer that eats dead animals (e.g. crab, crow, vulture, buzzard and hyena.)
*Detritivore – a consumer that obtains its nutrients from detritus

Decomposers
- Last links in the chain
- Break down nutrients in the dead "stuff" and return it to the soil.
- The producers can then use the nutrients and elements once it's in the soil. The decomposers
complete the system, returning essential molecules to the producers.

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CHAPTER 7: PHYSICS

Force
- It refers to the push or a pull.
- The unit of force is in newton (N) in honor of Isaac Newton. A newton is defined as the
force that will give a mass of 1kg, an acceleration of m/s2. Therefore, a force of 10 N means
a 10 kg object accelerates at 1 m/s2.

*Kinds of Forces:

 Contact forces
– result from direct contact between two surfaces or objects.
Example: Friction (always opposes movement between two surfaces in contact).
 Non-contact Forces
- are called “forces acting at a distance”.
Example: Gravitational Force/Gravity (Weight = mass X g/acceleration due to gravity/9.8 m/s2)

Motion
- can be described as a change in position with a reference point (something that is stationary).

Descriptors of Motion

A. Distance – is the total length covered by the moving body.

A. Displacement – includes the length and the direction of the objects, path from the starting
point to its end point.

B. Speed – refers to how the object is moving.

S = d/t
Where:
S = speed
d = distance
t = time

- The SI unit used to express speed is meters per second (m/s).

- Speed triangle:

v/s 49
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Examples:

1. Lydia de Vega is a world known Filipino track and field athlete. She can run the 100.0 m dash
in about 11.0 seconds. What is her average speed?

Given: d = 100.0 m
t = 11.0 s

Required: speed

Solution:
s = d/t
s = 100.0 m/11.0 s
s = 9.09 m/s

2. What distance would be covered by a moving vehicle in 1 minute if its speed is 5.0 m/s?

Given: s = 5.0 m/s

t = 1 min = 60 s

Required: distance

Solution: d = st
d = (5.0m/s) (60s)
d = 300 m

C. Velocity – a vector quantity which includes not only the rate but also the direction the
object takes. Simply, it is a speed with direction.

V = d/t
Where:
V = velocity
d = displacement
t = time

Examples:

1. The car is heading north covering a distance of 500 meters in 20.0 seconds. What is the car’s
velocity?

Given: d = 500 m
t = 20 s

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Required: V

Solution: V = d/t
V = 500 m/20.0 s
V = 25.0 m/s, north

2. Jed’s house is 6.0 km away from his school. How long would it take him to go to school, riding
a bus, if its velocity is 30 km/h?

Given: d = 6.0 km
V = 30 km/h

Required: time

Solution: t = d/v
t = 6.0 km/30 km/h
t = 0.2 h or 12 min

D. Acceleration - a vector quantity where there is a change in velocity. The unit to be used is
meter per square second (m/s2).

Acceleration = change in velocity/time

In symbols: a = Vf – Vi/t

Where: a = acceleration
Vi = initial velocity
Vf = final velocity
t = time

Example:

1. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47 seconds. Determine the
acceleration of the car.

Given: Vi = 18.5 m/s

Vf = 46.1 m/s
t = 2.47 s

Required: acceleration

Solution: a = Vf – Vi / t

a = 46.1 m/s / 18.5 m/s

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

a = 27.6 m/s / 2.47 s

a = 11. 17 m/s2

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

WAVES

- A propagation of disturbance through a medium in which energy is transferred.

*Wave Pulse – a simple disturbance.
*Wave Train – series of disturbance created in a medium.
*Wave motion – energy propagation by means of motion of a change in
medium rather than the medium itself.
*Medium – it is through which the wave travels from one point to another.

TYPES OF WAVES:

*Based on the direction of movement of the individual particles relative to the direction that the wave
travels.

1. Transverse Waves – a wave in which particle of the medium move in a direction perpendicular (or
at right angle) to the direction of the waves.
2. Longitudinal Waves – a wave in which particles of the medium move in direction parallel to the
direction of the wave.

*Based on the ability or inability to transmit energy through various media:

1. Mechanical Waves – a wave that is not capable of transmitting energy through a vacuum. It needs
a material/medium such as solid, liquid or gas to transport its energy from one location to another.
2. Electromagnetic Waves – a wave that can transmit energy even without any material medium.

WAVE CHARCTERISTICS:

1. Amplitude (A) – maximum distance covered by a particle from its resting position.

*Positive Amplitude – distance from rest to crest.

*Negative Amplitude – distance from rest position to trough position.

2. Frequency (F) – the number of waves passing through a given point during the interval of one
second.

*Heinrich Rudolf Hertz – a German physicist where the unit for frequency is
being credited to him, Hertz (Hz).

*Frequency of 10 Hertz = 10 waves are passing through a given point during the
interval of one second.

3. Wavelength and Wave Speed

*Wavelength – length of one complete cycle. It is a measure of a distance a

crest and the adjacent crest, or trough and the adjacent trough
in a transverse wave.

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*Wave Speed – is a product of frequency and wavelength. It is calculated in

meter per second.

SOUND
- A form of energy that is produced when air molecules vibrate and move in pattern known
as waves or sound waves.
-
Characteristics of Sound:

1. Pitch – refers to our subjective impression about the “highness or lowness” of a tone, which
is related to the frequency of the tone.

2. Loudness and Intensity – the intensity of a sound wave refers to the amount of energy that is
transported past a given area of the medium per unit of time.

*Intensity – the amount of sound energy of a wave.

*Loudness – the sensation on the ear that the intensity of a sound wave produces.
*Decibel (dB) – a scale used to measure sound intensity.
 0 decibel – the smallest audible sound (near total silence).

Intensity of Sound at a Particular Range

Range (dB) Description Examples

0 – 30 Threshold of human hearing up to the
Very Quiet sound of a quiet whisper.

31 – 50 Quiet An average quiet house, with maybe

the sound of someone moving around.

51 – 70 Normal A regular daily sound like people

talking.

71 – 90 Loud Sound becomes annoying or

distracting like vacuums or a noisy car
on a busy street.

91 – 110 Very Loud Areas this loud should be avoided.

Prolonged exposure can cause
permanent ear damage.

111+ Painful Permanent hearing loss may happen

even in limited exposure to levels this
high.

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3. Quality or Tone – refers to the sound quality. It depends on the combination of different
frequencies of sound waves. It is the tone of a vibrating medium that distinguishes it from
another source.

NATURE OF LIGHT

Visible light
– or simply light, is a form of electromagnetic radiation with frequency ranges from 4x104 to 8x1014
Hz. It is responsible for the sense of sight. Light exists as both a particle and a wave.

* Theories on the basic nature of light:

1. Wave Theory of Christian Huygens (1629 – 1695) – explains that light has a wave motion, which
starts from a vibrating body which is transmitted at high speed.

2. Particle or Corpuscles Theory of Isaac Newton – he described light as a stream of particles or

corpuscles. Light consists of tiny particles of matter emitted by a source that travel only in straight
lines called rays.

Characteristics of light:
1. Color
*Visible light in the EM Spectrum – it is then subdivided according to color, with red having
the longest wavelength but with lowest frequency and violet with the shortest wavelength but with
the highest frequency. It is arranged in sequence of colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet
(ROYGBV).

2. Intensity or Brightness
*Luminous Objects – objects emit or send off their own light.
*Nonluminous objects – those that cannot emit their own light.
*Photometry – deals with the measurement of visible light as perceived by
human eyes.
*Candela (cd) – an SI unit used to measure the brightness of a light through
luminous intensity.
*Transparent – permit the passage of light.
*Opaque – those that block light.
*Translucent – allow only some amount of light to pass through.
*Light waves may be transmitted, refracted, reflected or absorbed.

HEAT AND ELECTRICITY

HEAT
- Is the amount of thermal energy that an object is able to transfer to another object.
- It always flows from hotter objects to objects with lower temperature.

*Thermal Energy – the total amount of internal kinetic energy an object has.

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

*Temperature – a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of an object which can be described in

Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
*Thermometer – the instrument that is used to measure temperature.
*Calorie – a unit used to express heat. It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
gram of water by 1℃.

Mechanism of Heat Transfer:

Heating – the process of increasing the internal energy.

Cooling – the process of decreasing the internal energy.

1. Conduction
- The transfer of energy from molecule to molecule or when the objects are in direct contact.

*Conductors – materials through which heat energy passes. Examples are

metals.

*Nonconductors/Insulators – materials that do not allow heat to pass through.

Examples are glass, rubber, and plastic.

2. Convection
- The movement of liquids or gases from a colder region to a warmer region, producing a
current. Molecules with higher kinetic energy are moved from one place to another place.

3. Radiation
- Involves the form of energy called radiant energy, energy that moves through space.
*Radiant Energy – any energy that is transmitted by radiation which is carried by
the electromagnetic wave at the speed of light.

ELECTRICITY
- A form of energy (electrical energy) that comes from electrically charged bodies. It results
from electrical charges.
- The movement of the electrons causes the formation of electricity.
- It originated from the Greek word electron, meaning “amber”.

*Electrification/charging by contact – the process of rubbing two materials together and then
separating them to produce electricity. The objects are then said to be electrified or have acquired
electric charge.
*Ampere (A) – is the unit used to measure electric current.

*Law of Charges:
a. Neutrons – electrically neutral particles.
b. Protons – carry the positive charge.
c. Electrons – carry a negative charge.

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COLLEGE BOUND PROGRAM: SCIENCE HANDOUT

--- __

+ +

LIKE CHARGES REPEL

_ +

UNLIKE CAHRGES ATTRACT

Charging Processes
- A process by which an insulator or an insulated conductor receives a net charge. It can be
done by conduction and by induction.

*Conductors – materials that permit electric charge to move from one region to another.
*Insulators – materials that do not permit the passage of charges through them.

a. Charging by conduction – requires contact between the neutral body and the charged object. It
produces similar charges.

b. Charging by induction – does not require contact but does require the presence of a ground. It
produces opposite charges.

Earthing or Grounding
- Used in various appliances that we have like refrigerator, cooker, heater, and toaster.
Earthed appliances will let the current flow to the earth through the earth wire instead of
flowing through the person’s

57
 REFERENCES

Books

Aquino, Marites D. et al. (2017) Science Links 7. Rex Book Store, Inc. Quezon City.

Baguio, Sarana M. and Rose Mary B. Butaran (2006). Chemistry the Central Science. C
& E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.

Bayquen, Arista V. et al. (2013). Exploring Life Through Science. Phoenix Publishing House. Quezon
City. Philippines.

Benner, John (2009). Earth Science. USA:CK - 12 Foundations. California.

Bishop, Jeanne E. et al. General Science. Merrill Publishing Company. Columbus, Ohio.

Internet Sources
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Penicillin)

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/63f0/dab1a349a5ffe8a327ebd572f03e2fbb7c74.pdf
(Activity on Classification of Science)

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/775041417094033483/?lp=true (Branches of Science

Activity)

https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/science-fair/steps-of-the-scientific-method
(Additional concept for Steps in Scientific Method)

https://www.worksheetplace.com/index.php?function=DisplaySheet&sheet=Identify-3-states-of-
matter&links=2&id=3206&link1=241&link2=379 (Activity on States/Phase of Matter)

https://purificationikwok.weebly.com/decantation.html (Figure: Decantation Set-up)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Gravity-Filtration-Setup_fig1_221928045 (Figure: Filtration

Set-up)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-diagram-of-the-flotation-experiment-
setup_fig1_270591649 (Figure: Flotation Set-up)

https://www.fishersci.se/se/en/scientific-products/centrifuge-guide/centrifugation-theory.html
(Figure: Centrifugation Set-up)

https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-set-up-distillation-apparatus-606046(Figure: Simple Distillation

Set-up)

https://oilandgasinfo.ca/patchworks/fractional-distillation/(Figure: Fractional Distillation Set-up)

58
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)#/media/File:Fractional_crystalliza
tion.svg (Figure: Crystallization Set-up)

https://www.google.com.ph/search?tbm=isch&q=ink+chromatography+set+up&chips=q:ink+chrom
atography+set+up,online_chips:experiment&usg=AI4_-
kTUzU73aeOWE1u_34LBYK9DM0xf4A&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhhvSNg5jkAhWUyosBHURuDrAQ4lYILyg
F&biw=1366&bih=625&dpr=1#imgdii=or_6AS_3Dod4zM:&imgrc=yPgTU6USoUbe_M: (Figure:
Chromatography Set-up)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialysis_(biochemistry)#/media/File:Dialysis_Figure.png (Figure:
Osmosis Set-up)

https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/endocrine.html (Major Glands of Endocrine System)

https://www.livescience.com/27990-human-body-systems-the-integumentary-system-
infographic.html (Integumentary System)

https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/urinary-tract-how-it-
works?dkrd=hispt0005 (Excretory System: The Urinary Tract and how it Works)

https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=anatomy-of-the-urinary-system-85-P01468
(Excretory System: Provides anatomical information about each organ within the system.)

https://www.livescience.com/22486-circulatory-system.html (circulatory system)

https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/neuro/conditioninfo/parts (Nervous system)

https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/brain-nervous-system.html (Nervous system)

https://www.webmd.com/heartburn-gerd/your-digestive-system#3 (digestive system)

https://www.livescience.com/22616-respiratory-system.html (respiratory system)

https://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/respiratory (respiratory system)

https://biologydictionary.net/urethra/ (excretory sytem)

http://www.primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/foodchains.htm (Food Chain and Food Web)

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/intro-to-ecosystems/a/food-chains-food-
webs (Autotrophs and Heterotrophs)

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