TABLE OF CONTENT

Unit 1
Studying Public Institutions
Unit 2
Framing Public Policy : Niti Aayog
Unit 3
Conducting Elections : Election Commission of India
Unit 4
Securing Citizens : The Police
Unit 5
National Human Rights Commission of India
Unit 6
Regulatory Institutions Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
Unit 7
a) Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)
b) Central Vigilance Commissioner (CVC)
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Public Institutions in India

Q.1 – Explain the development and types of public institutions in India. And

describe the various challenges faced by it.

Answer – Introduction

Public institutions are the foundation of democracy in

Public Institutions
India. Since independence, many such institutions have

been established in India. These include governmental

and non-governmental, constitutional and non-

constitutional institutions, besides legislative, executive

and judicial institutions. The importance of public

institutions in India is immense. Apart from

strengthening our democracy, they also contribute significantly to the overall

development of the country.

Meaning of Public Institutions Public institutions are those institutions that are established
for the sole purpose of ensuring service, welfare and justice to the “public”.

Definitions of public institution by different thinkers :

“Institutions are man-made

constraints that structure political, economic, and social interaction. They
include both informal constraints and formal rules.”

public institutions, as various organs of

society, contribute to the overall functioning of society like a living organism.
According to him, “These institutions develop to fulfil the various functions
and needs of society.”

Development of public institutions :

Ancient texts such as the Rig Veda and Arthashastra

mention concepts such as 'Sabha' or 'Samiti', indicating

1 the presence of early democratic institutions.

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Public Institutions in India

The history of the Maurya Empire tells us that their

administration was very efficient which was based on various

2 public institutions such as local administration, police system,

espionage system, transport system and registration of births

and deaths, foreigners, industries, trade, construction.

The bureaucracy in Akbar's time was a highly urban

institution, where officials were primarily responsible for

3 maintaining law and order, defending and expanding the

empire's borders, and collecting money or taxes. Public
institutions in this period were centralized, more modern and
clearly defined.

• The advent of British colonial

• Through the formation of
rule proved to be an important
administrative agencies such as
milestone in the development of
the Indian Civil Service, the
Indian public institutions. During
British developed a centralised
4 the British period, many reforms
administrative structure with a
took place in the field of
focus on tax collection and
education, justice, police reforms,
000000000
administration.
civil service reforms and the
establishment of various public
institutions.

After independence, several public institutions like Finance

Commission, Election Commission, Enforcement Directorate
and National Human Rights Commission, operating in India
5
under the Constitution, have played a vital role in the
development of India and are still working to make India more
developed and inclusive.

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Public Institutions in India

Major types of public institutions in India :

Type
Constitutional Statutory Regulatory Executive Quasi judicial
institutions institutions institutions institution institution

1. Constitutional Institutions : These types of institutions are established by the

constitution of the country and their main function is to ensure the constitutional order

of the nation. These include the Parliament, the Judiciary and other constitutional

institutions of the Centre and the States. Example: Election Commission of India.

2. Statutory Institutions : These are the institutions which are not mentioned in the

Constitution but are created by the Parliament by passing laws. These institutions are
called statutory institutions. Example: National Commission for Women, National

Human Rights Commission, and National Green Tribunal.

3. Regulatory Institutions : These are independent agencies created by the

government to define, enforce and regulate standards in a particular sector. Example:

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) and Board of Control for Cricket
in India (BCCI).

4. Executive Institution : These institutions are established by executive resolution

or action, not by the Constitution or an Act of Parliament. Parliament can convert them
into statutory institutions by enacting a new law or act. Examples: Niti Aayog, Central

Bureau of Investigation (CBI), and National Development Council.

5. Quasi-Judicial Institution : These bodies are created under special legal provisions
and handle parts of judicial processes but are not fully judicial. They settle disputes in

specific areas and their decisions have legal weight. Example: National Human Rights
Commission.

Various challenges faced by public institutions in India :

Challenges
Lack of personnel Dilemmas in Political
Ambiguities Accountability
resources coordination interference

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Public Institutions in India

1. Lack of Personnel Resources : The biggest problem in Indian institutions is the

lack of quality and quantity of employees. There is a huge shortage of working

professionals and a lack of skilled and technically equipped personnel. These problems

affect the effectiveness of public institutions.

2. Ambiguities : Legal and constitutional ambiguities are common in India's federal

and democratic structure. This hinders the functioning of institutions. Vague guidelines
and rules create confusion and misunderstanding for employees, affecting their

efficiency.

3. Dilemmas in Coordination : Tackling the country's modern challenges, such as

environmental degradation, cybercrime, and health problems, requires extensive

cooperation, coordination, and regular communication. Lack of coordination among

employees hinders the functioning of institutions. This leads to delays in work and

misutilization of resources.

4. Accountability : Lack of accountability and transparency is a serious problem in

public institutions. Lack of accountability of officials reduces the efficiency of

institutions. This affects the quality of work and problems are not resolved on time.

5. Political Interference : Political interference in the functioning of institutions

affects impartiality and independence. It hinders the decision-making process of

employees and reduces the efficiency of institutions. It weakens the independence of

institutions like the judiciary, election commission and regulatory institutions, thereby

reducing their effectiveness.

Conclusion

Public institutions are the soul of our governance, In this It is important to move from

secrecy to transparency, bring in more accountability, enhance staff capacities, and

encourage decentralization. In contemporary times, technology and digital media can
be used to better deliver services and resolve grievances.

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Public Institutions in India

Q. 2- Critically evaluate the role and functions of election commission of India?

Answer – Introduction

India has an electoral system under the democratic

system of governance. To participate in this process,

citizens above 18 years of age have been given the

Right to Vote by the Constitution. For this, the

Election Commission has been formed, which is

responsible for conducting free and fair elections. But some shortcomings in it make
it weak.

The Election Commission of India is an independent constitutional institute

that conducts free and fair electoral system. It was established by the
Constitution on 25 January 1950. It is also called "Election Commission".

o Article 325: No person shall be excluded from the list on the basis of religion, race, caste or
sex.

o Article 326: This is related to the elections to the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies.

o Article 329: The court cannot interfere in election matters.

Role and functions of the Election Commission

1. Voter List : Preparation of voter list is an important function of the Election

Commission, as it is the foundation of the electoral process. Voter list is prepared by

the Election Commission for assembly and parliamentary constituencies.

2. Voter Registration : Through this work of the Election Commission, all the citizens

who register are included in the voter list. The work of raising awareness to ensure
one's name in the voter list is done by the Election Commission.

3. Nomination of Candidates : The Election Commission nominates citizens who

apply to be candidates and their names are entered in the voter list, which includes
their citizenship, educational and financial information. This increases the transparency
of the voting process and prevents corruption.

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Public Institutions in India

4. Regulation of Parties : Election Commission registers political parties and grants

them the status of state parties on the basis of their performance. As per the Election

Symbol Order, 1968, the specification, reservation, options and allotment and
recognition of political parties and matters connected therewith are implemented by

the Election Commission.

5. Conduct of Elections : The role of Election Commission (ECI) in the conduct of

elections is vital. It makes the voting process fair and secure. RPA, 1951 identifies

electoral offences, issues or problems arising during elections are resolved by this

commission, thereby ensuring free and fair elections.

Major criticisms of the Election Commission

1. Technical Issues : The Election Commission faces various technical glitches such as
malfunctioning of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs), poor quality of election

equipment, etc. In some cases, technical problems in EVMs lead to incorrect counting
of votes, thus affecting the election results.

2. Fake Voting : Fake voting is a serious problem in the Election Commission, in which
due to the irresponsibility of the employees, some people cast fake votes, which

hinders the fair election process, the Election Commission has failed to solve this
problem, due to which it is criticized.

3. Un Skilled-Staff : Some election staff lack training and efficiency, which hinders the

functioning of the electoral system and leads to interruptions and misunderstandings

in the electoral process.

4. Shortcomings in the Voter List : There are common errors in the voter list such as
- Names of Dead People, Double Enrollment, and Names of Many Eligible Voters

Missing, Wrong Identity Cards, etc. Due to which a good electoral process gets
disrupted, which shows the shortcomings of the commission.

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Public Institutions in India

5. Deficiencies in Grievance Redressal Mechanism : The Election Commission lacks

a strong and systematic grievance redressal mechanism, with clear and systematic
procedures for registering, processing and resolving complaints.

Critical assessment

The main functions of the Election Commission in administering the electoral system include

the Preparation of Voter Lists, Voter Registration, Nomination of Candidates, Regulation

of Political Parties & The Conduct of Elections. These functions are the foundation of the

electoral process and are essential for the strengthening of democracy. However, the

Commission faces several criticisms, such as technical deficiencies (EVM malfunctions), Fake

Voting, The Problem of Unskilled Staff, Errors in Voter Lists and The Lack of An
Effective Grievance Redressal System. These problems raise questions about the
fairness and transparency of elections, which need to be addressed.

Conclusion
The conclusion of the above study is that the Election Commission is an institution

which is responsible for conducting the electoral process in a systematic manner, but
some of its shortcomings make it weak. Therefore, to ensure a strong electoral process,

it is necessary to remove the shortcomings of the Election Commission.

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Public Institutions in India

Q. 3 – Describe the origin and Development of Police.

Answer – Introduction
Police system is an important part of maintaining

social balance. Its origin is from ancient times and

the police organization in India developed during

the British Period. After independence, Indian

Police Service was established, currently, police

maintains justice with technological advancement

and remains active for the security of the society. Its function is to fight against crimes

and help in ensuring peace in the society.

"Police" means the organization or system that is a group of officers and employees
to protect law and peace in society. Its main objective is to react, prevent and
investigate crimes, so that peace, order and security are maintained in society.

• According to the Oxford dictionary “Police is a system that helps keep things in order and

enforces laws.”

• In 1929, a police officer was defined by the Royal Commission to perform special duties

for the welfare of the public. In this activity, the police officer was presented with the
opportunity to carry out this work voluntarily and was also compensated for it.

Origin of Police
6 Levels of Indian Police System

1. Headquarters

2. Range
The word police originate from the Greek word "Polis" and the
3. District

Latin word " Politeia", which means, "City" and " Conditions 4. Subdivision

5. Circle

of a State". They ensure compliance of rules and safety of the 6. station

Recruitment Posts of Indian

public by all. The origin of this system in India dates back to Police System

1. Indian Police Service Officer

ancient times legally which stipulates the duty of the state to 2. Provincial Police Service

Officer
maintain peace in the society and punish the wrongdoers. 3. Sub-Inspector,

4. Constable

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Public Institutions in India

Development of policing on the basis of different periods

Policing in Different Periods

Ancient period (till Gupta

Medieval Period British Colonial Period स्वतंत्रता के बाद
period)

Complex police Centralized and Entry of the East India Training based policing
system linked to decentralized policing. Company into the system but with
state responsibility. police system. political influence.

1. Ancient Police System (till Gupta period) : On the basis of the literary information
received about the police system in ancient times, this system was based on the

concept of "Danda", which symbolized the oppressive power of the state. During this
time the police system was not fully developed.

• During this time, policing was complex, which was operated by dividing it at the

village and urban level. At the village level, soldiers and officers were appointed in
the village by the village head and the urban administration consisted of

"Durgapals" or "Kotapals", who were responsible for law, order and revenue
collection.

• In ancient India, the duty of the state was linked to the social structure, under
which providing security, maintaining law and order, etc. were organized.

Kautilya, the minister of Emperor Chandragupta in the Maurya Empire, is

considered the father of the Modern Concept of Policing. His “Dandaniti”
outlined the system of policing and bureaucracy.

2. Policing in the Middle Ages : During medieval Indian history, policing was divided

between the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal period (1526-1860). At this
time, the observance of Islamic principles has given special influence to formal and

informal methods.
• During the Sultanate period (1206-1526), in the police system, the Kotwal was

responsible for the security of cities and villages, and the Muhtasib was the chief
officer for morality and public works. This system was directed by the Amir-i-dad.

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Public Institutions in India

• During the Mughal period (1526-1860), the structure of the police system was

more urban centralized. Information about this is available from the accounts of
European travelers during the 16th and 17th centuries.

3. Policing in the British Colonial Period : The arrival of the East India Company in
India introduced dual control and diarchy, which hindered policing.

• During the colonial period, the police system was under the influence of the East
India Company and the responsibility of criminal justice was kept under the control

of the police administration by the Nawabs.

• Colonial policing in India aimed to establish control through force and terror,

with a lack of police accountability.

The repressive Colonial Police System was introduced in India by Sir

Charles Napier during British rule in India.

4. Policing after Independence : After India's independence from British rule in 1947,
the nature of police system of colonial rule lasted for a long time and after this the role

and intervention of the Indian government in the police system increased.

• After Independence, the responsibilities of the police were included by the Indian

government in areas such as food, education, health and community development.

• Issues like Casteism, Religious Riots, Political Disputes in India have given a

new shape to the police system to face the new challenges.

• During this time, protecting the rights of citizens, following legal procedures and

establishing balance increased in the involvement of the police.

Conclusion

The police originated from the need for societal organization and security, dating back
to ancient times. Under British rule, it became systematic and part of law enforcement.

after-independence, the Indian police system has been crucial in promoting social
messages, political activities, and civil security, aligning with societal needs and

democratic values.

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Public Institutions in India

Q. 4 - What do you understand by human rights? Evaluate the role of National

Human Rights Commission in the protection of human rights in India?

Answer – Introduction

Protection of human rights is essential for the

development of human life, for which commissions

Related to Human Rights were formed in India, which

play a special role for the Dignity, Life, Freedom and

Equality of people. They evaluate government policies

and cooperate with national and international organizations.

Rights that demand respect for humanity and dignity through Freedom, Equality, &
Justice are called Human Rights. These rights aim to provide every person with
freedom and equal opportunities in different situations.

According to Section 2 of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, "Human Rights" are the

rights relating to life, liberty, equality, and dignity of an individual guaranteed by the Constitution

or included in international treaties and enforceable by Court of India.

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is a statutory body

in India established to protect and preserve human rights. It was set up
on October 12, 1993, under the provisions of the National Human Rights
Act, 1993. Its main aim is to investigate violations, prevent them, and
ensure justice. Its headquarters are in New Delhi.

• After World War II in 1945, due to the loss of life and property and the violations of human rights,

the United Nations (1945) issued a declaration on 10 December 1948.

• This includes the Prime Minister (Speaker), Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Union Home Minister, Deputy

Speaker of the Rajya Sabha, Leader of the Opposition in both the Houses of Parliament.

• The tenure of the Chairperson and members of the National Human Rights Commission is set for 3
years or until they reach the age of 70, whichever comes first.

• The Protection of Human Rights Bill in India was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 8 July 2019, which

was adopted by the Lok Sabha on 19 July 2019 and by the Rajya Sabha on 22 July 2019.

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Public Institutions in India

Major issues related to National Human Rights

• Arbitrary arrest and custodial torture

• Communal violence,

• Violence against women and children and their trafficking and child labor
• sexual violence,

• Rights Matters of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Persons with Disabilities

and other Religious Minorities

• The issue of LGBTQ rights, etc.

Types of Human Rights Commission

National Human Rights Commission State Human Rights Commission

It is an independent body established to protect and
These are bodies formed to protect and monitor human
promote human rights in India. Its function is to
rights in the states, functioning similar to the NHRC but at
investigate human rights violations, make suggestions
the state level.
and spread awareness.

Role of National Human Rights Commission in the protection of human rights in India

According to the report of the United Nations, in all developing countries including
India, 1/5th of the population sleeps hungry at night, 1/4th does not have access
to drinking water facilities and 1/3rd is living a life of extreme poverty.

People are struggling for human rights in developing countries like India, for which the
National Human Rights Commission plays an important role in the following ways: –

1. Protecting and strengthening Human Rights : The main role of this commission
is to protect and strengthen human rights. In India, this commission is responsible for

investigating and taking action against issues that harm human rights such as police
atrocities, child abuse, domestic violence, discrimination, religious violence, etc.

2. Independent Investigation and Recommendations : his commission tries to

solve the cases of violation of human rights through independent investigation, the

commission investigates the actions of police and government officials and

recommends steps to be taken for improvement.

• For example, the Human Rights Commission has given special attention to the
problems of lack of investigation of crimes, lack of proper proceedings in criminal
trials, delay in decision and sentence in court, etc.

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Public Institutions in India

3. Human Rights Awareness & Education : The commission promotes human rights

awareness and literacy across different sectors of society through various media. It
educates citizens about their rights and conducts human rights education and training

programs in collaboration with educational institutions, non-governmental

organizations, and community groups.

4. Research & Policy Suggestions : NHRC conducts research on various human

rights issues and provides policy suggestions to the government. It studies the causes

of human rights violations and prepares reports based on them. The commission issues
comprehensive reports on various sensitive issues such as child labor, human

trafficking, and violence against women and children. These reports help the
government and other concerned agencies in taking policy decisions.

5. International Cooperation and Commitment : The NHRC cooperates with

international human rights organizations and acts according to international

standards. It works closely with the United Nations and other international bodies and
seeks to implement their recommendations for the protection of human rights in India.

Evaluation
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) plays an important role in protecting and

strengthening human rights in India. It investigates issues such as police atrocities, child

abuse, domestic violence, discrimination, and religious violence and ensures appropriate
action through independent investigation. NHRC conducts various programs to promote
human rights awareness and education. But this commission is not practically effective due to

its lack of transparency, lack of funds, discrimination against women, lower class and

other shortcomings. This commission has been created for the work of strengthening human
life, so efforts should be made to make it practically capable.

Conclusion
Organizations like the Human Rights Commission have a special role to play in the

protection necessary for the development of human life, through which work is done
for the universal development of human beings through activities like freedom,
equality and justice, so efforts should be made to make them effective.

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Public Institutions in India

Q. 5 - Describe the structure and functions of Reserve Bank of India.

Answer – Introduction
The Reserve Bank of India is the highest monetary

institution of India, which controls the monetary and

financial system of the Indian economy. For this, it

formulates and implements various policies and

schemes. It is important for the Indian government and

the Indian economy, as it contributes to currency stability, banking structure and

financial support.

The Reserve Bank of India is the Central Bank of India, established on 1 April 1935
under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. Its headquarters are located in Mumbai. It
was nationalized in the year 1949, since then it is owned by the Government of India.

• According to R.G. Whawtrey, the role of a central bank is to be the " lender of last resort."

• According to Kische & Elkin,, the main task of central banks is to maintain the “Stability of
the Monetary Standard."

Structure of Reserve Bank of India

❖ According to the RBI Act, the Central Board of Directors needs to meet at least 6 times
a year, with one meeting each quarter.
❖ Under the e Transfer of Public Ownership Act, 1948, the Indian government made
the RBI a state-owned financial institution.

The Reserve Bank has an executive governor, who oversees the operations of the bank.

It is fully owned by the Government of India, hence its organizational structure is linked
to the Central Board and Local Board of the Government of India –

1) Central Board : The Central Board has the power to supervise the
Reserve Bank and it performs special functions through its committees

and sub-committees.
• It consists of 1 Chief Governor and 4 other Deputy Governors, 10

Directors and 2 government officials as recommended by the Central Government.

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Public Institutions in India

• The Governor and Deputy Governor participate in the meetings of the Central

Board, but they are not allowed to cast votes..

• Governors and Deputy Governors can be reappointed after completing their 5-year

term, and the President has the power to remove them during the 4-year term. The
Central Board is required to meet at least 6 times every year.

2. Local Board : The four divisions of the Reserve Bank of India are
governed by a Local Board (one for each Local Board) consisting of 5

members appointed by the Central Government to represent regional

interests as well as the interests of co-operative and indigenous banks.

• After completion of the term of 4 years, these members can be

reappointed.

• This Board is responsible for providing guidance on the work and issues given by
the Central Board.

Major Functions of Reserve Bank of India

1. Monetary functions : RBI is the only government organization

by which currency is issued to run the monetary system of the

country. This bank works to create and maintain currency to supply

new notes.

• It supervises the production of coins, ensures proper settlement of currency and

ensures equal distribution of paper currency to the public.

• Currently, RBI prints notes of Rs. 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 & 500 denominations.
2. Banker of Government : RBI acts as banker to the federal and state governments.

It provides banking services legally to the central government and can advise the
government to help it with the quantity, terms and timing of the new bond issue.

• RBI gives advises the government on banking, financial issues

and economic planning and issues bills of exchange based on

government orders.
• Short term loans are provided by the RBI to the government to
reduce financial stress.

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Public Institutions in India

3. Supervisor and Banker of Banks : Indian banks are closely

monitored by the RBI through on-site inspections and off-site

monitoring. Various experienced teams are sent by the RBI to

conduct investigations in particular banks.

• Appropriate action is taken by RBI to resolve the problems and emerging risks of
the banks and to keep the entire financial system in order.

• The RBI organizes financial facilities for other banks. These banks keep a certain
amount of money with the RBI. This helps the banking system run smoothly by

acting as a lender.

4. Credit Control : The important function of credit control is

performed by the Reserve Bank of India. The loan amount is used

by the Reserve Bank on the basis of their quantum and merit to

manage it properly.

• The quantum includes fixing the Bank Rate, operating the open market system,
changing the reserve ratio and the qualitative controls include credit rationing,

fixing margin requirements.

5. Foreign Exchange Manager : RBI is responsible for keeping the foreign exchange
market stable and organized so that international trade and payments can run

smoothly. It also takes care of the country's foreign exchange reserves.

• It carries out tasks related to foreign exchange transactions for the government. It

monitors and regulates the foreign exchange market.

• RBI ensures the strength of the foreign exchange system and its ability to meet

domestic and global needs.

Conclusion

The Reserve Bank of India is an important institution for the Indian economy. Its
functions are to maintain financial stability, encourage economic growth, and protect

the interests of consumers. Its structure makes it an important institution that plays a
vital role in keeping the Indian economy smooth and stable.

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Public Institutions in India

Q. 6 – Critically analyse the role of CAG in India.

Answer – Introduction

India is a Democratic & Developing country where

the challenge of resource utilization is always there. In

India, the Comptroller and Auditor General ensures

the Financial Accountability of the country as a

Constitutional Institution, but it faces criticism for its

colonial nature and limited function.

The Comptroller and Auditor General of India is a constitutional Institution established

under Articles 148 to 151 of Part 5 of the Constitution of India with the primary purpose
of ensuring financial accountability.

• The Office of the Accountant General was established in the

year 1858 by the British Government in India.
• In 1860, Sir Edward Drummond was appointed as the first
Auditor General, after which it came to be known as Auditor
General, in the year 1866 the name of this post was changed
to Comptroller and Auditor General and from 1884 it was
named as Comptroller and Auditor General of India.

Article 149 of the Indian Constitution provides for the determination of the powers,
functions and duties of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, and the functions

of the CAG have been laid down under the Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Act, 1971 –

Three types of audit are conducted by CAG –

Types of Audit

Compliance Audit Financial Audit Performance Audit

Auditing to ensure Checking the accuracy Review and evaluation of

compliance with laws, and transparency of the efficiency and
rules, and regulations. financial information effectiveness of institutions.
and reports.

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Public Institutions in India

Role of Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) in India

The Comptroller and Auditor General is appointed by the President and serves a term
of 6 years or till the age of 65. He can tender his resignation to the President at any

time before that.

Functions as per the Comptroller and Auditor General of India Act 1971 –

1. Conducts audit of all receipts and expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India
and the States and Union Territories.

2. Deals with transactions relating to the Contingency Fund and Public Accounts.

3. Advises the President on the drafting of accounts of the Union and the States.

4. Acts as the guide, friend and mentor of the Public Accounts Committee of Parliament.
5. He audits the accounts of all Government companies as per the provisions of the

Companies Act.

Role

1. Free & Fair Examination : CAG has independence granted by the Constitution.

They conduct independent and impartial audit of the accounts of government

departments and institutions. This gives them the independence to complete the audit

of the government system without any pressure or bias.

2. Control of Parliament : The CAG is an agent of the Parliament and is empowered

to provide information to the Parliament regarding the financial management of

various government departments and institutions. He prepares reports as per the

requirements of the Parliament and presents them before the Parliamentary

Committees.

3. Fairness in Government System : One of the main roles of CAG is to ensure fairness
in the government system. They ensure that the expenditure is in accordance with the

relevant laws and rules and there is no bias in the system.

4. Provider of financial information : CAG is the main source of financial information

providing comprehensive information to Parliament and the public on government

expenditure, state of financial management and other matters in various fields.

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5. Constitutional Defence : Apart from the financial examination, the CAG's job is

also to perform other functions mentioned in the Constitution, such as making official
observations of government expenditure according to constitutional rules.

Critical analysis of the role of CAG

1. Secrecy of the Selection Process : The process of appointment of CAG is

considered secret because in this process the selection of CAG is done in a secret
manner, due to which doubts arise on its impartiality. As a result, there is also an

indication of government bias and pressure on the appointment of CAG.

2. Colonial Nature : This system was established during the British colony, due to

which its nature is criticized. Under this, it is considered unnecessary to decide the role
of the Comptroller and Auditor General in independent India.

3. Lack of Guidelines of Parliament : CAG acts as an agent of the Parliament, but in

reality the Parliament has failed to clarify the functions of CAG, due to which it is
criticized.

4. Limited Powers & Functions : CAG has only the right to audit, but it does not have

the right to ensure the implementation of its reports. This may reduce its effectiveness.

5. Government's Parrot : CAG is called the government's parrot because it is not able

to work impartially due to government influence on it, which reduces its credibility and
also affects Indian democracy negatively.

Conclusion

In India, the CAG examines government expenditure and financial management, but
its appointment process is secretive and opaque. Its impartiality is questioned due to

limited powers and government pressure, which has a negative impact on its credibility
and Indian democracy, it is necessary that its functions be systematically determined.

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Public Institutions in India

Q 7. Describe the historical development of the Central Vigilance Commission.

Answer - Introduction

The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) of India plays a

vital role in promoting integrity and accountability in public

administration. Established to root out corruption and

ensure that public officials perform their duties with honesty

and transparency, the Central Vigilance Commission has

evolved over the past few decades into a key institution in

the fight against corruption in India.

Meaning of Central Vigilance Commission: The Central Vigilance Commission

(CVC) is an important institution under the Government of India which works
independently. Its job is to keep an eye on government departments and ensure
that there is no corruption. It also assists and advises the departments in their
vigilance related work.

Vigilance means that, government employees and institutions work honestly and
efficiently so that administrative work can be done quickly and without any
hindrance. This can prevent waste and financial loss.

Historical Evolution of the Central Vigilance Commission:

The historical evolution of the CVC took place in the following phases:

1. First Phase:

▪ Early Background: 1962 - On the recommendation of the Santosh

Hegde Committee, a need was felt to further strengthen anti-

corruption measures. The report of this committee stated that an Santosh Hegde
independent and powerful body is needed to prevent corruption.
2. Second Phase:

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Public Institutions in India

▪ Formation of the Commission: 1964 - Based on the

recommendations of the Santosh Hegde Committee, the

Central Vigilance Commission was formed through a
Government Resolution on 11 February 1964. Under this
resolution, the Commission was set up as an independent

advisory body to investigate cases of corruption in various

government departments and organisations.

3. Third Phase:

▪ Legal Nature and Authority: 1998 - Government of

India moved to make the Central Vigilance Commission

a Statutory body. In this direction, the Central Vigilance

Commission Act, 2003 was passed by the Parliament.

▪ Under the Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003,

the Central Vigilance Commission was established as an

autonomous body with the mandate to oversee

vigilance and anti-corruption functions in various

departments of the Central Government.
4. Fourth Phase:

▪ Expansion of Role and Scope: 2004 – Based on the

directions of the Supreme Court, the Central Vigilance

Commission got the power to direct the Central Bureau

of Investigation (CBI) to investigate corruption cases
against Central Government officials.
▪ Under the Right to Information Act, 2005, an initiative

was taken to make the Central Vigilance Commission

more transparent and accountable.

5. Fifth Phase:

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Public Institutions in India

▪ The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 further

strengthened the powers of the Central Vigilance

Commission by linking it with the institution of Lokpal.

Under this Act, the Prosecution Directorate of the CBI is

mandated to report to the Central Vigilance
Commission, thereby further strengthening the
monitoring role of the CVC.

Present Structure :

▪ In recent years, the Central Vigilance Commission has

adopted technology to enhance transparency and

efficiency. Initiatives like vigilance clearance system and

online complaint mechanism have made its work easier.
Public awareness campaigns and vigilance awareness
have been instrumental in promoting anti-corruption

measures among the public.

▪ The Central Vigilance Commission works independently

and reports directly to the President of India. This

commission also oversees vigilance administration,

advises on planning and implementing anti-corruption

strategies, and ensures that the highest integrity is

maintained in public sector entities.

Conclusion

The historic evolution of the C.V.C. is the result of a long and deliberate effort aimed
at promoting transparency and integrity in the government machinery in India. Today

it is an important part of the anti-corruption mechanism in India.

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Public Institutions in India

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Public Institutions in India

(i) Approaches of Public Institutions

Introduction

Public institutions are the foundation of any

democratic society and essential to the Political,

Constitutional, Economic & Social Development

of any country. The study of various approaches to

these institutions plays an important role in Political

Science, Public Administration & Comparative Politics etc.

Public institutions are those organizations that are established with the purpose of
ensuring service, welfare and justice to the public. These institutions make laws,
implement policies and ensure the welfare of citizens.

Approaches of Public Institutions

Comparative Functional Behavioural

Historical Approach Structural Approach
Approach Approach Approach

1. Historical Approach : This approach emphasizes the need to monitor the historical

development of public institutions, identifying the historical events responsible for the
formation and running of public institutions.

Example : Understanding the historical background of the Indian Parliament, such as

the colonial period, constitutional disputes, and the impact of social movements.

2. Comparative Approach : This approach to public institutions involves the

comparison of different political systems, governments, and institutions. This approach

compares the way different institutions function across geographic locations, social

and political settings, and time.

Example : Comparing the parliamentary system of the United Kingdom and the
presidential system of the United States.

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Public Institutions in India

3. Functional Approach : This approach is concerned with the function and role of

public institutions in the political system, examining the representation, law and
administration and duties of justice. This approach also examines the impact of various

institutions and their potential.

Example : To analyze the functioning of the Election Commission of India and its ability
to conduct elections.

4. Structural Approach : Under this approach, public institutions are understood in

terms of their structure and framework, which set out the rules that govern the
institutions' methods, relationships, and modes of functioning.

Example : The structure of the judiciary, the appointment of judges, and the allocation
of powers between different levels.

5. Behavioural Approach : This approach is linked to the actions, behaviors, and

interactions of individuals in various public institutions, in which institutions remain

engaged with people. Through this approach, decision-making processes and mutual

dynamics between the research institution can be examined.

Example : The methods of communication and decision making among law makers

are studied.

Conclusion

Therefore, it can be said that different views of public institutions reflect their ways of
functioning, which are responsible for the democratic development of a society or

country. Public institutions are essential for the smooth functioning of society. They
maintain law and order, protect civil rights, and make governance effective.

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Public Institutions in India

(ii) NITI Aayog

Introduction

NITI Aayog is an important Policy Making and

Direction Organization of the Government of India.

It works in an advisory capacity to understand and

develop the objectives, policies and plans of the

Government of India. on 1 January 2015, a new

institution was adopted as a 'Think Tank' in place of the Planning Commission, it is

known as 'National Institute for Transforming India', which is known as 'NITI

Aayog'.

It is an independent body through which public policy is formulated in India and this
commission has been formed to rapidly encourage reforms in Indian society and
economy.

Structure of NITI Aayog

➢ Prime Minister of India: Chairperson

➢ Vice President: Nominated by the Prime Minister.
➢ Governing Council: Chief Ministers of all States and Lieutenant
Governors of Union Territories.

Objectives and Functions of NITI Aayog Seven Pillars

of NITI Aayog
• The primary function of the NITI Aayog is to advise the Indian
government and assist in the formulation of new policies. (1) Pro-People:
• National development with the participation of states. (2) Pro-active
• Creating reliable plans at the village level and conveying them to
(3) Participation
the government.
(4) Empowerment
• Including national interests in economic and political matters
(5) Inclusion
through commission officers in various regions.
• Developing a shared perspective on national development (6) Equality

priorities, areas, and strategies with the active participation of (7) Transparency
states, keeping in mind national objectives.

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Public Institutions in India

Major Schemes of NITI Aayog

▪ Atal Innovation Mission (2016) : Promoting innovation and entrepreneurship.

▪ Women Entrepreneurship Platform : Promoting innovation and entrepreneurship.
▪ Lucky Grahak and Digi-Dhan Vyapar Yojna : Promote digital payments.
▪ Mentor India Abhiyan : To connect and guide mentors.

Achievements of NITI Aayog

• Global Entrepreneurship Summit 2017-Women First: Prosperity for All Women

Entrepreneurship Platform.

• Through this a Village Storage Scheme concept has been prepared.

• Promoting the use of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence,

blockchain and methanol economy, among others.

The National Institution for Transforming India is a government- 117 aspiring districts

were identified based on a set of holistic parameters.

Challenge before Niti Aayog

➢ NITI Aayog has many subjects for policy making, due to which it faces challenges
in making policy on any one subject.

➢ NITI Aayog has no authority to give funds to states, which makes it difficult for it
to bring about change in the state.

Niti Aayog has been reduced to a very important advisory organization. It now lacks
the power needed to bring about positive change in government functioning.

Conclusion

NITI Aayog covers many important functions and schemes. Through this, many
policies, plans and directions are presented from time to time, which are prepared to

encourage the prosperity and development of the country.

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Public Institutions in India

(iii) Sweep

Answer – Introduction

The Election Commission of India's SVEEP program

plays an important role in increasing electoral

awareness. Its objective is to educate voters about

the electoral process, so that the citizens of the

country can be made aware of their Rights & Systematic Voters' Education and Electoral Participation

Responsibilities. Through which the work of

spreading voter education and awareness is done by using various means of

communication.

SVEEP is a program that has been started by the Election Commission to make voters
aware at the national level in India. Through this, voters are motivated to participate
in the voting and election process. It was started in New Delhi in the year 2009. And
the full name of SVEEP is "Systematic Voters Education and Electoral Participation".

Major objectives/functions/contributions of SVEEP Programme

1. Social Guidelines :The Election Commission of India has motivated the people of

the society to vote through the SVEEP program. This program conveys important
information of the Election Commission to the people through social media platforms.
And takes the society towards a new direction.
2.Awareness programs : For this, Posters, Videos, Social Media, Electronic Media

etc. are used to provide information about the electoral process to the public. These
mediums help in increasing awareness among different communities and classes and

encourage them to participate in the electoral process.

3.Involving special communities and youth : Through this, campaigns are run to

explain the importance of voting to the youth and to register them. Through this
program of the Election Commission, awareness and education campaigns are run in

collaboration with NGOs and civil society organizations. This encourages the youth.
4. Promotion of democratic activities : This program has contributed significantly in
strengthening democracy. Due to which the citizens became aware of their

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Public Institutions in India

responsibilities towards democratic governance. As a result, people's faith in

democracy increased, which motivated the public to vote for elections. Electoral
programs like SVEEP encourage democratic participation of people, which helps in the

formation of a responsible and fair government.

Conclusion

Thus, it can be said that in order to make the electoral process effective in practical
terms, the SVEEP programme played an important role in increasing voter awareness

in which efforts were made to connect people with the electoral process through
online and offline methods. Such programmes are commendable for promoting Indian

democratic activities, they should be made effective.

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