LECTURE SHEET FOR CSE

EEE 1103 Electrical circuits

PREPARED BY
Md. Tuhin Zahan, Lecturer dept. Of EEE
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Resistor: A Resistor is a passive component that can resist the flow of electrical current in electrical
circuit.
Symbol of resistors

Unit of resistor is ohm(Ω)

Types of resistors:
There are two basics types of resistors as follows:
• Linear resistor
• Non-linear resistor
Linear resistor: The resistors whose values change with change in applied temperature and voltage are
known as linear resistors. There are two types of linear resistors:
Fixed resistors: These resistors have a specific value and these values cannot be changed. Following are
the different types of fixed resistors:
• Carbon composition resistors
• Wire wound resistors
• Thin film resistors
• Thick film resistors
Variable resistors: These resistors do not have a specific value and the values can be changed with the
help of dial, knob, and screw. These resistors find applications in radio receivers for controlling volume
and tone. Following are the different types of variable resistors:
• Potentiometers
• Rheostats
• Trimmers
Non-linear resistor: The resistor values change according to the temperature and voltage applied and is
not dependent ohms law. Following are the different types of non-linear resistors:
• Thermisters
• Varisters and
• Photo resistors
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Properties of resistor:
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
Where,
𝜌 = resistivity (ohm-meter) of the material
𝑙 = length of the wire
A= cross sectional area of the wire
Applications of Resistor:
Following are the applications of resistors:
• Wire wound resistors find applications where balanced current control, high sensitivity, and
accurate measurement are required like in shunt with ampere meter.
• Photoresistors find application in flame detectors, burglar alarms, in photographic devices, etc.
• Resistors are used for controlling temperature and voltmeter.
• Resistors are used in digital multi-meter, amplifiers, telecommunication, and oscillators.
• They are also used in modulators, demodulators, and transmitters.

Combination of resistor in a electrical circuit: there are two combinations of resistor

➢ Series combination
➢ Parallel combination

Before discuss the two combination we have to know some kye notes:
Branch: branch is the electrical component.
Node: a node is the junction point between two or more electrical component.
Loop: A loop is a closed path in the circuit where one returns to the starting node without crossing any
intermediate node twice.
Network vs. Circuit: A network may not provide a closed path, but an electric circuit always includes
one or more networks forming closed paths.
Voltage: the required energy to flow electric charge through the electrical circuit.
𝑑𝑤
𝑣= unit is Volt(V)
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑞
Current: the rate of change electric charge 𝑖= unit is ampere(A)
𝑑𝑡
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Series combination: When two or more resistors are connected end to end consecutively, they are said to
be connected in series combination. The combined resistance of any number of resistances connected in
series is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ … … … … … . +𝑅𝑛
Proof:
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝑉𝑛

𝐼𝑅𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝐼𝑅𝑛 [in series circuit current is same but voltage is different ]

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑅𝑛

Resistors in Parallel

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the voltage is the same across all the
resistors. In such circuits, the current is branched out and recombined when branches meet at a common
point. A resistor or any other component can be connected or disconnected easily without affecting other
elements in a parallel circuit.

1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯……….+
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛

Proof:
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + ⋯ … … … + 𝐼𝑛
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + + ⋯………+
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯………+
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
1 1 1
𝑅𝑇 = ( + + ⋯ … … … … + )−1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Practice problems:
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Wye and Delta configuration:

Equivalent resistance for wye and delta

R12= R1+R3; similarly, R13= R1+R2 and R34= R3+R4
For delta, R12= Rb || (Rc + Ra) correspondingly, R34= Ra || (Rc + Rb) and R13 = Rc || (Ra + Rb)
Related problems:

Delta (∆) to Wye(Y) conversion:

Setting Rac(Y) = Rac (∆)

R1 + R3 = Rb || (Ra + Rc)
𝑅𝑏 ×(𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑐 )
= ……………. (i)
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

Similarly,
𝑅𝑐 ×(𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 )
Rab = R1 + R2 = ……………. (ii)
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

𝑅𝑎 ×(𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 )
Also, Rbc = R2 +R3 = ……………… (iii)
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

Subtracting equation (iii) from (i)

𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 −𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 −𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 −𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐
R1 −R2 = = ………………………..(iv)
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Adding equation (ii) and (iv) we obtain

2𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐
2R1 = ∴ R1 =
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

Similarly,
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏
R2 = and R3 =
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

In a word we can say, that the value of an arm of Y-connection is multiplying its adjacency ∆ arm
and divided by the summation of total resistance in ∆ branch.
𝑹∆
Q. in delta (∆) to wye(Y) conversation proof that RY = . The value of all resistance is same.
𝟑
Wye (Y) to delta (∆) conversation:
From Y connection we can write
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
R1 = ………………. (i)
𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶
R2 = ………………. (ii)
𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
R3 = …………………...(iii)
𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐶

Divided equation (i) by (ii) we get,

𝑅1 𝑅𝐵
=
𝑅2 𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐴 𝑅1
𝑅𝐵 = … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑉)
𝑅2
Equation (i) divided by (iii) we obtain;
𝑅1 𝑅𝐶
=
𝑅3 𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐴 𝑅1
𝑅𝐶 = ……………...(v)
𝑅3

Putting the value of RB and RC in equation (ii) yield;

𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅 𝑅1
𝑅𝐴 × 𝐴
𝑅
𝑅𝐴 𝐴
𝑅
3 3
R2 = 𝑅𝐴 𝑅1 𝑅𝐴 𝑅1 ∴ 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅𝐴 (1+ 𝑅 +𝑅 )
2 3 2 3
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

𝑅𝐴 𝑅1
𝑅3 𝑅𝐴 𝑅1 𝑅2
Or, R2 = 𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2 or, R2 =
𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅3

𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 𝑅2
∴ 𝑅𝐴 =
𝑅1
𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2
Similarly; RB =
𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅1 𝑅2
RC =
𝑅3
Each resistor in the network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors taken two at a time,
divided by the opposite Y resistor.
Q. for wye (Y) to delta (∆ ) conversation show that 𝑹∆ = 𝟑𝑹𝒀
Related problems:

Rab=133.63 𝛀
Rab =9.632𝛀 Rab= 40 𝛀
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Basic laws
Ohms law: ohms law state that the current 𝐼 through in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage 𝑉 and inversely proportional to the resistance 𝑅, provided the temperature remain constant.
𝑉𝛼𝐼

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 [ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡]

1
𝐼= 𝑉
𝑅

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
where 𝑚 = 1/𝑅; 𝑥 = 𝑉; c=0
∆𝑉
𝑅 = 𝑉/𝑅 or 𝑅 =
∆𝐼
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

Power: the work that is done in a specific amount of time.

𝑊 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞 𝑉2
𝑃= or 𝑃 = or 𝑃 = × or 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 ∴ 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅=
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡 𝑅

Unit j/s or watt(W)

Voltage regulation: the percentage of no-load to full load voltage is known as voltage regulation.
𝑉𝑁𝑜 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 = × 100%
𝑉𝑓𝑙

Kirchhoff’s voltage law: The algebraic sum of rise voltages and drop voltages in a closed circuit is equal
to zero. Other word, rise voltages is equal to drop voltages.
−𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 − 𝑉4 + 𝑉5 = 0
Or, 𝑉1 + 𝑉4 = 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉5
𝑀

∑ 𝑉𝑚 = 0
𝑚=1

Voltage divider rules (VDR):

In a series circuit, the voltage across the resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the resistance
levels.
RT =R1 + R2
𝐸
I=
𝑅𝑇

Applying ohms law;

𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1
𝐸
𝑉1 = × 𝑅1
𝑅𝑇
Similarly;
𝐸
𝑉2 = × 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Kirchhoff’s current law: The algebraic sum of entering current and leaving current in a node is equal to
zero. In other word the entering current is equal to the leaving current.

𝑖1 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖 5

𝑜𝑟, 𝑖1 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖5 = 0
𝑀

∑ 𝑖𝑚 = 0
𝑚=1
Current divider rules:
As the name suggests, the current divider rule (CDR) will determine how the current entering a set of
parallel branches will split between the elements.

• For two parallel elements of equal value, the current will divide equally.
• For parallel elements with different values, the smaller the resistance, the greater the share of input
current.
• For parallel elements of different values, the current will split with a ratio equal to the inverse of
their resistor values.

Here;
Total voltage is 𝑉
Total current and resistance is 𝐼, RT
respectively.
In parallel circuit voltage is same in all branch.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝐼1 =
𝑅1
𝐼 𝑅𝑇
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼1 =
𝑅1
𝐼 𝑅𝑇 𝐼 𝑅𝑇 𝐼 𝑅𝑇
Similarly; 𝐼2 = ; 𝐼3 = ; 𝐼𝑁 =
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑁
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Related problems:
1.For the circuit in Following figure, find voltages and 𝐕𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐕𝟐 .

2.Determine and vo and i in the circuit shown in Fig.

3. For the network of Fig. 7.67:
a. Calculate RT.
b. Determine I and I1.
c. Find V3.
4.For the network of Fig. 7.68:
a. Determine RT.
b. Find Is, I1, and I2.
c. Calculate Va.

5.find 𝑰𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝟐 from the following figure

Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

6. Using the information provided, determine the

resistance R1 for the network of Fig. 6.80.

7. Find the unknown quantities for the circuits of Fig. 6.87 using the information provided

8. Assuming identical supplies, determine the currents𝑰𝟏

and 𝑰𝟐 for the network of Fig. 6.94.

9. Assuming identical supplies, determine the current

I and resistance R for the parallel network of Fig. 6.95.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

10. For the network of Fig. 6.97:

a. Determine the open-circuit voltage VL.
b. If the 2.2-k_ resistor is short circuited, what is the new value
of VL?
c. Determine VL if the 4.7-k_ resistor is replaced by an
open circuit.
11. For the network of Fig. 6.98, determine
a. the short-circuit currents I1 and I2.
b. the voltages V1 and V2.
c. the source current Is.

12. Find and in the circuit of Fig. 2.26

13. find the voltage V0

14. Find I and Vab in the circuit

Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Types of Energy Sources

The energy sources are broadly classified into the following two types −
• Voltage Sources
• Current Sources
Both voltage sources and current sources are further classified into the following two categories −
• Independent Sources
• Dependent Sources

• Ideal Voltage Source

• Practical Voltage Source
• Ideal Current Source
• Practical Current Source

Dependent Sources:
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Method of analysis
Nodal analysis:
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages to the remaining nodes. The voltages are referenced
with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of
node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

The reference node commonly called as ground since it is assumed to have zero potential.

Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor. We can express this principle
as
Vhigher −Vlower
i=
R
Use the nodal analysis to find the node voltages for the following figure.

Applying kcl at node V1 we obtain

𝐼1 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝐼2
𝑣1 −𝑣𝑟 𝑣1 −𝑣2 𝑣1 −0 𝑣1 −𝑣2
𝐼1 = + + 𝐼2 or, 𝐼1 = + + 𝐼2
vr 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2

Applying kcl at node V2 we get;

𝑖3 = 𝑖2 + 𝐼2
𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝑖3 = + 𝐼2
𝑅2
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Applying kcl at node 𝑉1

𝑖1 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑟
𝑜𝑟, 5 = +
4 2
𝑜𝑟, 5 = 0.25𝑣1 − 0.25𝑣2 + 0.5𝑣1 − 0
0.75𝑣1 − 0.25𝑣2 = 5 … … … … … (𝑖)
vr
Applying kcl at node v2
𝑖4 + 𝑖2 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖5
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑟
𝑜𝑟, 10 + =5+
4 6
40 + 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 30 + 𝑣2 − 0
=
4 6
240 + 6𝑣1 − 6𝑣2 = 120 + 4𝑣2
𝑜𝑟, 6𝑣1 − 10𝑣2 = −120 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
5 −0.25
| |
0.75 −0.25 −120 −10
∆=| | = −7.5 + 1.5 = −6 𝑣1 = = 13.333V
6 −10 ∆
0.75 5
| |
6 −120
Similarly; 𝑣2 = = 20V
−6
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources:

CASE 1 If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference node, we simply
set the voltage at the nonreference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In Fig. 3.7,for
example,𝑣 1 = 10 V
Thus, our analysis is somewhat simplified by this knowledge of the voltage at this node.
■ CASE 2 If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two nonreference
nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or supernode; we apply both KCL and KVL
to determine the node voltages. Here v2 and v3 are supernode.

A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected between two
nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

Using the nodal analysis find the node voltages and 𝑖.

V1 V2 V3 at node 𝑉1
𝑉1 = 21𝑉
applying kcl at Supernode V2 and V3
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑟 𝑣3 𝑣3
Vr + + + =0
4 3 2 6
3𝑣2 − 3𝑣1 + 4𝑣2 − 0 + 6𝑣3 + 2𝑣3
=0
12
−3𝑣1 + 7𝑣2 + 8𝑣3 = 0
−3 × 21 + 7𝑣2 + 8𝑣3 = 0
7𝑣2 + 8𝑣3 = 63 … … … … … … … (𝑖)
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Super-node equation 𝑣3 − 𝑣2 = 9 … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)

𝑉3
By using calculator V2= − 0.6V and V3= 8.4 V 𝑖 = = 4.2 A
2
1.Find the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 3.12.

Solution:
Here node 1 and 2 are supernode
Applying kcl at supernode
𝑣1 − 𝑣4 𝑣2 − 𝑣3 𝑣1
+ + = 10
3 6 2
2𝑣1 − 2𝑣4 + 𝑣2 − 𝑣3 + 3𝑣1
= 10
6

5𝑣1 + 𝑣2 − 𝑣3 − 2𝑣4 = 60 … … … … … … (𝑖)

Supernode equation 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 20 … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Also, node 3 and node 4 are supernode and it a dependence source
Applying kcl at node 3&4 we obtain
𝑣2 − 𝑣3 𝑣1 − 𝑣4 𝑣3 𝑣4
+ = +
6 3 4 1
𝑣2 − 𝑣3 + 2𝑣1 − 2𝑣4 𝑣3 + 4𝑣4
=
6 4
8𝑣1 + 4𝑣2 − 4𝑣3 − 8𝑣4 = 6𝑣3 + 24𝑣4
8𝑣1 + 4𝑣2 − 10𝑣3 − 32𝑣4 = 0 … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Supernode eqn 𝑣3 − 𝑣4 = 3𝑣𝑥 … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
∵ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣4
Putting vx value in eqn (𝑖𝑣)
3𝑣1 − 𝑣3 − 2𝑣4 = 0 … … … … … … … . . (𝑣)
By using calculator, we obtain 𝑣1 = 26.67𝑉; 𝑣2 = 6.67𝑉; 𝑣3 = 173.33𝑉; 𝑣4 = −46.667𝑉
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Related problems:
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Meash analysis:
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method

For the circuit, find the branch currents and using mesh analysis.

Applying kvl at loop-1

−15 + 5𝑖1 + 10(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 10 = 0
15𝑖1 − 10𝑖2 = 5 … … … … … … … (𝑖)
Applying kvl at loop-2
6𝑖2 + 4𝑖2 − 10 + 10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
−10𝑖1 + 20𝑖2 = 10 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
15 −10
∆= | | = 200
−10 20
5 −10
| |
𝑖1 = 10 20 = 100 + 100 = 1𝐴
∆ 200
15 5
| | 150+50
−10 10
Similarly, 𝑖2 = = = 1𝐴
∆ 200

𝐼3 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 =0
Or use calculator.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Calculate the mesh currents 𝒊𝟏 and 𝒊𝟐 of the circuit of Fig. 3.19.

Answer: 𝒊𝟏 =2 A, i2 =0 A.

Use mesh analysis to find the current 𝑰𝟎 in the circuit of Fig. 3.20

Applying kvl at loop-1

−24 + 10(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 12(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) = 0
22𝑖1 − 10𝑖2 − 12𝑖3 = 24 … … … … … . (𝑖)
Applying kvl at loop-2
24𝑖2 + 4(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 10(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
−10𝑖1 + 38𝑖2 − 4𝑖3 = 0 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Applying kvl at loop-3
4(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) + 4𝐼0 + 12(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
𝐼0 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2
4(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) + 4(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 12(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
−8𝑖1 − 8𝑖2 + 16𝑖3 = 0 … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑖1 = 2.24𝐴; 𝑖2 = 0.75𝐴; 𝑖3 = 1.5𝐴
Using mesh analysis, find 𝑰𝟎 in the circuit of Fig. 3.21
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Mesh Analysis with Current Sources

■ CASE 1 When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.22, for example.
We set 𝑖2 = 5A and write a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way; that is

−10 + 4𝑖1 + 6(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 0

■ CASE 2 When a current source exists between two meshes: Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.23(a), for
example. We create a supermesh by excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with
it, as shown in Fig. 3.23(b). Thus,
A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in common.

−20 + 6𝑖1 + 10𝑖2 + 4𝑖2 = 0 … … … … (𝑖)

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 − 𝑖1 = 6 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Use mesh analysis to determine𝒊𝟏 , 𝒊𝟐 and 𝒊𝟑 in Fig. 3.25.

Loop-1&2 are the supermesh

Applying kvl
−6 + 2(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) + 4(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 8𝑖2 = 0
2𝑖1 + 12𝑖2 − 6𝑖3 = 6 … … … … . (𝑖)
At super mesh
𝑖1 − 𝑖2 = 3 … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Applying kvl at loop-3

2𝑖3 + 4(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) + 2(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
−2𝑖1 − 4𝑖2 + 8𝑖3 = 0 … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑖1 = 3.473684𝐴; 𝑖2 = 0.473684𝐴; 𝑖3 = 1.105263𝐴
Related problems:
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

source conversion

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source v s in series with a resistor R by a
current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Linearity property:
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect. The
property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity property.
Homogeneity property: The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the excitation) is
multiplied by a constant, then the output (also called the response) is multiplied by the same constant. For
a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input i to the output v,
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage increases correspondingly by k; that is,
𝑘𝑖𝑅 = 𝑘𝑣
Additivity property: The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately. Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if
𝑣1 = 𝑖1 𝑅
And
𝑣2 = 𝑖2 𝑅
then applying (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )gives
𝑣 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )𝑅 = 𝑖1 𝑅 + 𝑖2 𝑅 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both the
homogeneity and the additivity properties. In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and
homogeneous. A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and independent
sources.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.
Example: check the following term whether linear or non-linear
i. P=vi 𝑣2
ii. P=𝑖 2 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑅
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 … … … … … … … (𝑖) P=𝑖 2 𝑅 … … … … … (𝑖)
Multiplying k both of eqn (i) Multiplying k both of eqn (i)
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑘𝑣𝑖 kP = 𝑘𝑖 2 𝑅
Satisfied the condition Satisfied the condition
Take the separate inputs of (i) Take the separate inputs of (i)
𝑝1 = 𝑖1 𝑣 … … … (𝑖𝑖) 𝑝1 = 𝑖12 𝑅 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑝2 = 𝑖2 𝑣 … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑝2 = 𝑖22 𝑅 … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Adding both(ii) &(iii) 𝑝𝑇 = (𝑝1 + 𝑝2 ) = 𝑖12 𝑅 + 𝑖22 𝑅 … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
𝑝𝑇 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 = 𝑖1 𝑣 + 𝑖2 𝑣 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )𝑣 … … . (𝑖𝑣) Putting the inputs 𝑖1 &𝑖2 simultaneously eqn (i)
Putting the inputs 𝑖1 &𝑖2 simultaneously eqn (i) 𝑝𝑇 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )2 𝑅
𝑝𝑇 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 )𝑣 … … … … (𝑣) 𝑜𝑟, 𝑝𝑇 = 𝑖1 𝑅 + 2𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑅 + 𝑖22 𝑅 … … … (𝑣)
2
(𝑖𝑣) & (𝑣) same response so the above function is
linear. (𝑖𝑣) ≠ (𝑣)
(𝑖𝑣) & (𝑣) are not same response so the above
function is non-linear.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Network theorems DC
Superposition theorem: The current through, or voltage across, an element in a linear bilateral network is
equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each source.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources (that means independent voltage source short and independent current
source open) except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the
techniques method of analysis and basic law discuss in previous section.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources.
Use the superposition theorem find v in the following figure

Solution:
Firstly, voltage source turns on but current is off

6×4
Use voltage divider rule 𝑣1 = = 2v
8+4
Also, you can use node or mesh analysis both will give same
result.
Secondly, turns on current source and turns off voltage source.

Using current divider rule find

32
3×
12
𝑖3 = = 2A
4
So,𝑣2 = 2 × 4 = 8 V

𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 2 + 8 = 10 V Ans.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

**use the superposition find the current 𝒊𝟎

Solution:

At loop-1
𝑖1 = 4 A
𝑖0, = 𝑖1 − 𝑖3
At loop-2 applying kvl at loop-4 applying kvl
2𝑖2 − 5𝑖0, + 1(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 3(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0 3𝑖4 + 2𝑖4 − 5𝑖0,, + 1(𝑖4 − 𝑖5 ) = 0
2𝑖2 − 5(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) + 1(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) + 3(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0 𝑖0,, = −𝑖5
6𝑖2 + 4𝑖3 − 8𝑖1 = 0 6𝑖4 − 4𝑖0,, = 0 … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
6𝑖2 + 4𝑖3 = 32 … … … … … (𝑖) At loop-5 applying kvl
At loop-3 applying kvl 4𝑖5 − 20 + 5𝑖5 + 1(𝑖5 − 𝑖4 ) + 5𝑖0,, = 0
4𝑖3 + 5(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) + 1(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) + 5𝑖0, = 0 −𝑖4 − 5𝑖0,, = 20 … … … … (𝑖𝑣)
4𝑖3 + 5(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) + 1(𝑖3 − 𝑖2 ) + 5(𝑖1 − 𝑖3 ) = 0 𝑖0,, = −3.529 A
5𝑖3 − 𝑖2 = 0 … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
By using calculator
𝑖3 = 0.941 A So,
𝑖0, = 4 − 0.942 = 3.059 A
𝑖0 = 𝑖0, + 𝑖0,,

𝑖0 = 3.059 − 3.529 = −0.47 A

Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Practice problems:
Use superposition to find 𝑉𝑥 in the circuit For the circuit in Fig. 4.12, use the superposition
theorem to find i.

Answer: 𝑉𝑥 = 25

Using the principle of superposition, find the

current 𝐼2 through the 12-k_ resistor of Fig. 9.16.
Answer:𝑖 = 2A
Use source transformation to find in the circuit shown
in Fig. 4.22

Answer:2.5mA Answer: 7.056mA

Thevenin theorem:
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source 𝑉𝑇ℎ in series with a resistor 𝑅𝑇ℎ , where 𝑉𝑇ℎ is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and 𝑅𝑇ℎ is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

Fig: Thevenin equivalent circuit Fig: finding Vth and Rth

Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Process to find VTh and RTh :

Vth: Calculate VTh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the open-circuit
voltage between the marked terminals.
RTh:
CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. is the input resistance
of the network looking between terminals a and b,
CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with superposition,
dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables. We apply a
voltage source 𝑣0 at terminals a and b and determine the resulting current 𝑖0 at terminal a-b.
𝑣𝑜
Then 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑖0

Alternatively, we may insert a current source 𝑖0 at terminals a-b and find the terminal voltage 𝑣0 .
𝑣𝑜
Again, 𝑅𝑇ℎ =
𝑖0

**Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the Vth calculation:

circuit shown in below to the left of the terminals

Applying kcl at node Vth

𝑉𝑇ℎ − 32 𝑉𝑇ℎ
Solution: + =2
4 12
𝑅𝑇ℎ calculation: 3𝑉𝑇ℎ − 32 × 3 + 𝑉𝑇ℎ
=2
12
24 + 96
𝑉𝑇ℎ =
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 3
(12||4) + 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 30 V
RTh
1
= 4Ω VTh +
RL
-
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

**Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent At loop-i3

circuit to the left of the terminals in the circuit of 2𝑖3 + 1 + 6(𝑖3 − 𝑖1 ) = 0
Fig. 4.30. Then find I 8𝑖3 − 6𝑖2 = −1 … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑖3 = −0.1666 A
1
𝑅𝑇ℎ = = 6 Ω
𝑖3
Vth calculation:

Fig: 4.30

Answer: VTh =9 V, RTh = 3 Ω, I =2.25 A

V1 V2
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig.
4.31 at terminals a-b

Node 1&2 are supernode

𝑉1 𝑉2
+ =5
4 6
3𝑉1 + 2𝑉2 = 60 … … … (𝑖)

And −𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 2𝑣𝑥

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑉1 − 0 = 𝑉1
Rth calculation: So −𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 2𝑉1

−3𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 0 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑉2 = 20 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ

Mesh analysis give the same result.

At loop-i1
−2𝑣𝑥 + 2(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 0
𝑣𝑥 = −4𝑖2
8𝑖2 + 2𝑖1 − 2𝑖2 = 0
2𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 = 0 … … … … . . (𝑖)
At loop-i2
4𝑖2 + 2(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 6(𝑖2 − 𝑖3 ) = 0
12𝑖2 − 2𝑖1 − 6𝑖3 = 0 … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Practice problems:
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the
4.34 to the left of the terminals. network in the shaded area of the network of Fig.
9.38.

Obtain the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig.

RTh=2.4 Ω Eth=4.8V
4.36.
Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the
network

Eth=-6 V RTh= 5 Ω
Apply Thevenin’s theorem to find in the circuit of Find the Thevenin equivalent at terminals of the
Fig. 4.105. circuit in Fig. 4.107

Fig. 4.107
Fig: 4.105
Find the Thevenin equivalent between terminals
of the circuit in Fig. 4.120.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Norton theorem:
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑁 , where 𝐼𝑁 is the short-circuit current through the
terminals and 𝑅𝑁 is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ

Process to find 𝑰𝑵 and RTh /𝑹𝑵 :

𝑰𝑵 : Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then finding the short-circuit
current between the marked terminals.
RTh or 𝑹𝑵 :
CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. is the input resistance
of the network looking between terminals a and b,
CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with superposition,
dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables. We apply a
voltage source 𝑣0 at terminals a and b and determine the resulting current 𝑖0 at terminal a-b.
𝑣𝑜
Then 𝑅𝑇ℎ /𝑹𝑵 = 𝑖0

Alternatively, we may insert a current source 𝑖0 at terminals a-b and find the terminal voltage 𝑣0 .
𝑣𝑜
Again, 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑖0
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.39 at terminals a-b.

𝑅𝑁 = (8 + 4 + 8)||5 = 4 Ω At loop-1, 𝑖1 = 2 A

At loop-2; 8𝑖2 + 8𝑖2 − 12 + 4(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) = 0

20
𝑖2 = = 𝐼𝑁 = 1 A
20

Practice problems:
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig. Using Norton’s theorem, find and of the circuit in Fig.
4.42, at terminals a-b 4.43 at terminals a-b.

𝑅𝑁 = 5 Ω 𝐼𝑁 = 7𝐴
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Maximum power transfer theorem:

A load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral dc network when its total resistive value is
exactly equal to the Thévenin resistance of the network as “seen” by the load.

𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ

𝑃𝐿 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝐿 = ( )2 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖)
(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2
To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate 𝑃𝐿 in Eq. (i) with respect to 𝑅𝐿 and set the
result equal to zero. We obtain
𝑑𝑃𝐿 2
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2 . 1 − 𝑅𝐿 . 2(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )(0 + 1)
= 𝑉𝑇ℎ [
𝑑𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )4

2
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2 . 1 − 𝑅𝐿 . 2(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )(0 + 1)
0 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ [
(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )4
(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2 . 1 − 𝑅𝐿 . 2(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )(0 + 1) = 0

2𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 2𝑅𝐿2 = 𝑅𝐿2 + 2𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿2

𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Putting this value in the equation (i) we obtain
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅
(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝑇ℎ )2 𝑇ℎ
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑇ℎ
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Find the value of for maximum power transfer in the circuit of Fig. 4.50. Find the maximum power.

Solution:

𝑅𝑇ℎ calculation: 𝑉𝑇ℎ calculation:

V1 V2

𝑅𝑇ℎ = (6||12) + 2 + 3 = 9 Ω
at node 𝑉1
𝑉1 − 12 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ + =0
We know, 6 12 3
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ 7𝑉1 − 4𝑉2 = 24 … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = at node 𝑉2
4𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
222 +2=0
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 13.44 𝑊 3
4×9 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = −6 … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 22 V

Determine the value of 𝑹𝑳 that will draw the maximum power from the rest of the circuit in Fig. 4.52.
Calculate the maximum power.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Millman’s theorem: Through the application of Millman’s theorem, any number of parallel voltage
sources can be reduced to one

Step 1: Convert all voltage sources to current sources

Step 2: Combine parallel current sources

Step 3: Convert the resulting current source to a voltage source

Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Using Millman’s theorem, find the current through and voltage across the resistor 𝑹𝑳 of Fig. 9.96.

𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3 10 16 8
− + − +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 5 4 2
𝐸𝑒𝑞 = 1 1 1 = 1 1 1 = 2.105V
+ + + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 5 4 2

1 2.105
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1 1 1 = 1.053Ω 𝐼𝐿 = A
+ + 1.053
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

SUBSTITUTION THEOREM:
If the voltage across and the current through any branch of a dc bilateral network are known, this branch
can be replaced by any combination of elements that will maintain the same voltage across and current
through the chosen branch.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
The current I in any branch of a network, due to a single voltage source E anywhere else in the network,
will equal the current through the branch in which the source was originally located if the source is placed
in the branch in which the current, I was originally measured.
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Capacitor:
Capacitance: capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of charge the charge 𝑞 per plate to the applied voltage
𝑣.
𝜖𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
A= surface area of the plates
d= distance between the plates
𝜖=permittivity of the material between the plates
𝑸
Also, we can express capacitance as 𝑪 = 𝑽; unit of capacitance is coulombs/volt or Farads(F)

or

Q. The equivalent capacitance of N series connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum reciprocals of
the individual capacitances.
Q. The equivalent capacitance of N parallel connected capacitor is the sum of the individual capacitance.
Q1.
𝑄𝑇 QT QN
Q1 Q2 Q3
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝑉
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + ⋯ … … . +𝑄𝑁
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝑉

𝐶1 𝑉+𝐶2 𝑉+𝐶3 𝑉+⋯…….+𝐶𝑁 𝑉

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑉

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ … … … . +𝐶𝑁
Q2.

𝑣𝑇 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ … . . +𝑣𝑁
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + + + ⋯…….+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯…….+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Find the equivalent capacitance seen between terminals a and b of the circuit in Fig. 6.16

Dielectric strength: The voltage required per unit length (electric field intensity) to establish conduction
in a dielectric is an indication of its dielectric strength.
Express the equation of energy store for a capacitor.
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
We know, 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣
𝑑𝑣
So, 𝑖 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

Putting this value in the above equation

𝑑𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑣𝐶
𝑑𝑡
The energy stored in the capacitor is therefore;
𝑇 𝑣 𝑣
𝑑𝑣 1 2𝑣 1 2 1 𝑞 2 𝑞2
𝑤 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶 𝑣 |0 = 𝐶 𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 ( ) =
−∞ 0 𝑑𝑡 0 2 2 2 𝐶 2𝐶
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Find the voltage across and charge on each capacitor of the network of Fig. 10.69 after each has
charged up to its final value.

Faradays law:
Faradays law state that, the rate of change flux is directly proportional to the induced voltage.
𝑑∅
𝑒=𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Derive the expression of energy store of an inductor.
The power delivered to the inductor is
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
So, 𝑝 = (𝐿 𝑑𝑡) 𝑖

The energy stored is

𝑡 𝑡 𝑖 𝑖
𝑑𝑖 1 1
𝑤 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐿 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑖 2 |𝑖0 = 𝐿𝑖 2
−∞ −∞ 𝑑𝑡 0 0 2 2
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Practice problem:
Consider the circuit in Fig. 6.27(a). Under dc conditions, find: (a) 𝒊, 𝑉𝑐 and 𝐼𝐿 (b) the energy stored in the
capacitor and inductor.

Inductor in series parallel

𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3+ … … … … … … + 𝐿𝑁

1 1 1 1 1
= + + = ⋯……………….+
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Alternating waveform
The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time
sequence.

GENERAL FORMAT FOR THE SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE OR CURRENT

The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is
𝑨𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Quadric system:
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝛉 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉 + 𝟗𝟎°)
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝟗𝟎°)
−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 ± 𝟏𝟖𝟎°)
−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝛉 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉 + 𝟐𝟕𝟎°)𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 − 𝟗𝟎°)
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal waveforms of each of the following sets?
𝒊 = 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎°)
𝒗 = 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎°)
solution:

𝒊 = −𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎°
𝒗 = 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟏𝟓𝟎°)
Solution:
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Effective or RMS Value

The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effectiveness of a voltage or current source
in delivering power to a resistive load.
The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average power to a resistor
as the periodic current.

The average power absorbed by the resistor in the ac circuit is

1 𝑇2
𝑃= ∫ 𝑖 𝑅𝑑𝑡 … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑇 0

while the power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is

2
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅 … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)

Equating both equations, we obtain

2 𝑅 𝑇
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅 = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑇
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝑇 ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡

The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as current;

1 𝑇
that is, 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝑇 ∫0 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡

find the rms value from the following figure

solution:
from the wave from express it mathematically,
−5𝑡, 0<𝑡≤2
𝑖(𝑡) = {−10, 2 <𝑡≤4

1 4
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √ ∫ {(−5𝑡)2 + (−10)2 }𝑑𝑡
4 0

1 2 4
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √ ∫ (−5𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (−10)2 𝑑𝑡
4 0 2
Lecture sheet for CSE Md. Tuhin Zahan
Lecturer dept. Of EEE

Find the rms value of the current waveform of Fig. 11.15. If the current flows through a 9Ω resistor, calculate the
average power absorbed by the resistor.

𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒: 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

find the average value also find the rms value

14(1 − 0) − 6(2 − 1)
𝐴𝑣𝑔 =
2
= 4

1 2
𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑆 = √ ∫ (142 + (−6)2 )𝑑𝑡
2 0

10𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 0<𝑡<𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = {
0, 𝜋 < 𝑡 < 2𝜋

1 2𝜋
𝑣𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ ∫ {(10𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)2 + 02 )𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋
𝑣𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ ∫ (10𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0