DC MOTOR:

A DC motor is a device which converts dc electrical energy in to mechanical energy.

The basic working principle of a DC motor is "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force”

When armature winding is connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the winding.
Magnetic field may be provided by field winding (electromagnetism). In this case, current
carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field, according to the
principle stated above.
According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is
something to oppose the conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by
magnetic drag, but in case of dc motors there is back emf. When the armature of a motor is
rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux lines and hence according to the
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in the armature conductors is called
back emf (Eb). The direction of this back emf (Eb) is such that it opposes the armature current
(Ia). The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the back emf and armature current.
Magnitude of the Back emf can be given by emf equation of a DC generator.

( )( )

V = Eb + Ia Ra and

I = Ia + If

Significance of back EMF (Eb): Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the
motor. If a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed. Due to
decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease allowing more armature current. Increased
armature current will increase the torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence, presence of the
back emf makes a dc motor ‘self-regulating.

Torque equation of dc motor: When the current-carrying current is placed in the magnetic
field, a force is exerted or it which exerts turning moment or torque F x r. This torque is
produced due to the electromagnetic effect, hence is called Electromagnetic torque.
Electrical power in the armature of the dc motor is Pe = Eb * Ia
The mechanical power that rotates the armature can be given regarding torque T and speed N so
the mechanical power in the armature is Pm= T * ω
Mechanical power = electrical power
T * ω = Eb * Ia

Where ω = and ( )( )

Substitute ω and Eb in above equation, we get

T* =( ) ( ) * Ia

T= ( ) ( ) * Ia

T = 0.519 ( ) ( ) * Ia

Tα Ia
Speed Control Methods of Dc Motor:

Before discussing the speed control of dc motor, we have to find the factors affecting the
speed of a DC motor.
We know back emf ( )( )

Eb α N

𝐸𝑏
𝑁α
𝜙

𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎
𝑁 ∝
∅

From the above expression the speed is inversely proportional to flux φ.

It is directly proportional to armature voltage drop (IaRa).
It is directly proportional to applied Voltage V.

So the speed control methods of dc motor are

1. Field flux control method

2. Armature resistance control method
3. Supply voltage control method
Field flux control method:

The set up for speed control of DC shunt motor using flux control technique is shown in the
figure. In order to change the speed, we have to change flux. This can be achieved by changing the field
current. The field current can be changed by changing the rheostat R connected in series with the field.
At the time of starting the motor, we need to run the motor slowly, therefore, the flux should be
maximum, because, N α 1 / φ.

To obtain maximum flux at the start, the field current should be maximum at the time of starting.
To obtainthis, the value of rheostat (R) should be minimum. The speed of DC shunt motor can be varied
by varying the field current. As we increase the resistance R of the rheostat, the field current Ish
decreases. So the flux φ decreases. This results in increasing the speed of the motor. As the R is
increased, the speed increases. We can use this technique to control motor speed above its rated value.

Armature resistance control method:

N α Eb and Eb = V – Ia (Ra + R)
The set up for speed control of DC shunt motor by armature voltage control method is shown
in the figure. A rheostat is connected in series with armature winding. By varying the value of
R we can vary the voltage across the armature. Because speed N is directly proportional to
armature voltage, it is possible to change the speed by changing the value of rheostat R. We
can use this technique to control motor speed below its rated value. But it is neither efficient
nor economical method because, in this method, speed is reduced at the cost of power loss in
rheostat (Ia2R).
Supply voltage control method:
 In this method, the field winding of the motor is connected to a constant DC voltage. But
armature is supplied with different voltages with the help of suitable switch gear as shown in the
figure. By changing the input voltage the speed of the motor is changed because of N 𝛼 V.

DC Generator:
Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy in to electrical energy.

Generator works on the principle of faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.

Faradays‟ first law: whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic field then an EMF/VOLTAGE to be
induced in that conductor.

Faraday‟s second law: it states that the induced EMF in the conductor is directly proportional to
the rate of change in flux (ϕ) cut by the conductor.

Emf α

Emf = N Where N is constant (no. of turns in the conductor)

So the important thing to produce EMF is change in flux (relative motion between conductor
and flux ϕ), it can be produced in two ways.

1. Moving the conductors in a stationary field flux ϕ

2. Moving the field flux ϕ by keeping conductors as stationary

Construction of dc generator:
 DC generators and dc motors are same construction.

A machine can works as generator as well as a motor depending on type of input.

The two important parts in dc machine are statorand rotor

The stator having
1. Yoke
2. Pole core & pole shoe
3. Field wining and
The rotor having
4. Armature
5. Armature winding
6. Commutator and brush arrangement

YOKE: Also called as Frame. Main function of the Yoke is to protect the internal parts of
machine from any mechanical injury, dust or moisture. It provides mechanical support to the
machine. It also provides the passage for magnetic flux produced by the poles. For small
machines, yoke is made up of Cast Iron and for large machinesit is made up of fabricated steel.

POLE AND POLE SHOE: Pole of a DC machine is like an Electromagnet. Field windings are
placed on it and produce the magnetic flux. Poles are made up of thin cast iron lamination
riveted together. Purpose of the pole shoe is to enlarge the cross section area so that the
reluctance of the magnetic path is reduced. It spreads the magnetic flux in the air gap more
uniformly.

FIELD WINDING: Purpose of the field winding is to produce the magnetic flux when an
electric current is passed through it. It is placed on pole and a small DC source is connected to it.
Material used for Field Winding is Enameled Copper Wire.

ARMATURE: Armature is the rotating part of the machine and is cylindrical in shape. It is
made up of thin silicon steel lamination, which are circular in shape and are riveted together.
Thin laminations are used to reduce Eddy Current Loss. On the outer periphery/circumference of
the armature, slots are provided to accommodate theArmature winding.

ARMATURE WINDING: They are placed in the slots provided on Armature. Made up of
enameled copper wire and have multi-turns. When the Armature rotates, it will also rotate and an
emf is induced in these winding.The armature winding of dc generator having two types
1. Wave winding (no. of parallel paths A=2)
2. lap winding (no. of parallel paths A = P)

COMMUTATOR: It is mounted on the same shaft as the Armature. Its function is to

connect the rotatingArmature winding to the stationary external circuit using brushes. It also
provides uni-directional torque in case of DC motor. Commutator is cylindrical in shape and is
made up of hard drawn copper segments. These segmentsare insulated from each other by a thin
sheet of mica.

BRUSHES: Brushes are placed and pressed upon the Commutator and makes a connecting link
between the armature winding and the external circuit. Brushes are made up of high grade carbon
and it is placed in a particularposition around Commutator by brush holder.
Working of dc generator:

(single loop generator):

An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically induced
e.m.f. whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f is produced in it
according to Faraday‟s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to flow
if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical dc generator
are
(i) a magnetic field and
(ii) a conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.

Construction:
A single-turn rectangular copper coil ABCD rotating about its own axis in a magnetic field
provided by either permanent magnet is or electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to
two slip-rings „a‟ and „b‟ which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two
collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press against the slip-rings. Their function is to collect
the current induced in the coil and to convey it to the external load resistance R. The rotating coil
may be called „armature‟ and the magnets as „field magnets‟.
Working:

Imagine the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction. As the coil assumes successive positions
in the field, theflux linked with it changes. Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
D.C Generators EMF proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e = N )
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to lines of flux i.e. when it is in Position 1, then flux
linked with the coil is maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum.
 It is so because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or shear the flux; rather they
slide along them i.e. they move parallel to them. Hence, there is no induced e.m.f. in the coil. Let
us take this no e.m.f. or vertical position of the coil as the starting position. The angle of rotation
or time will be measured from this position.
As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence
induced e.m.f. in it) increases, till position 3 is reached where θ = 90º. Here, the coil plane is
horizontal i.e. parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but
rate of change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence, maximum e.m.f. is induced in the coil when
in this position. In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90º to 180º, the flux linked with the coil
gradually increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence, the induced e.m.f.
decreases gradually till in position 5 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value.
So, we find that in the first half revolution of the coil, no (or minimum) e.m.f. is induced
in it when in position 1, maximum when in position 3 and no e.m.f. when in position 5. The
direction of this induced e.m.f. can be found by applying Fleming‟s Right-hand rule which gives
its direction from A to B and C to D. Hence, the direction of current flow is ABMLCD. The
current through the load resistance R flows from M to L during the first half revolution of the coil.
In the next half revolution i.e. from 180º to 360º, the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f. are
similar to those in the first half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position
7and minimum when in position 1. But it will be found that the direction of the induced current is
from D to C and B to A as shown in Fig. 26.1 (b). Hence, the path of current flow is along
DCLMBA which is just the reverse ofthe previous direction of flow.
Therefore, we find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator reverses
its direction after every half revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic reversals is known as
alternating current. It is, obviously, different from a direct current which continuously flows in
one and the same direction.
It should be noted that alternating current not only reverses its direction, it does not even
keep its magnitude constant while flowing in any one direction. The two half-cycles may be
called positive and negative half-cycles respectively.

For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip-rings are
replaced by split-rings. The split – rings (Commutator) are made out of a conducting cylinder
which is cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or
some other insulating material.

Transformers:

Definition of transformer: A transformer is a device which transfer electrical energy from one circuit
to the other circuit without electrical connections (with help of magnetic coupling). Transformers are
generally used for increasing or decreasing the voltage levels without changing the power and
frequency.
Mainly transformers are classified in two types they are i) step up transformer and
ii) step down transformer.

Step up transformer: a transformer which converts lower level of voltages in to higher level of
voltages is called step up transformer.

Step down transformer: a transformer which converts higher level of voltages in to lower level of
voltages is called step down transformer.
Principal of operation of transformer:

Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, which states that emf is induced in a
coil due to the current flowing in the other coil. From the fig current I is flown in the coil x with the
help of battery and resistor R so flux is produced from coil x due the flow of current I in it, this flux
cuts the second coil Y and an emf is induced in it which can be measured by galvanometer G. This is
called mutual induction.
Working of single phase transformer:
A single phase transformer consists of magnetic core and primary, secondary windings. A
winding which is connected to input supply is called Primary winding. A winding which is connected
to load is called secondary winding. Both are wound on the limbs of the core. Generally core is made
with silicon steel and it is laminated as shown in fig.

Vs. is the input supply voltage.

N1 is the number of turns in primary winding.
N2 is the number of turns in secondary winding.
E1 is the induced EMF in the primary winding.
E2 is the induced EMF in the secondary winding.
Ip is the current in the primary winding or input current.
Is is the current in the secondary winding or output current.

VS is the AC voltage which is applied to the primary winding of the transformer then a current Ip
is flown in the primary winding which causes to produce an alternating flux ϕ, this flux ϕ is
circulated in the magnetic core as shown in the fig. the secondary winding cuts the magnetic flux
ϕ produced by the primary winding so an EMF (E2) is induced init, magnitude of E2 is depends
on no. of turns N2, flux ϕ, frequency f.

If any load is connected then current Is = IL flown in the load.

If E1 > E2 (N1> N2) then the transformer is called step down transformer.
If E1 < E2 (N1< N2) then the transformer is called step up transformer.
EMF Equation of the transformer:

In a transformer, source of alternating current is applied to the primary winding. Due to this, the
current in the primary winding (called as magnetizing current) produces alternating flux in the
core of transformer. This alternating flux gets linked with the secondary winding, and because of
the phenomenon of mutual induction an emf gets induced in the secondary winding. Magnitude of
this induced emf can be found by using the following EMF equation of the transformer.

Let, N1 = Number of turns in primary winding

N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)

As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidal to its maximum value Φm from 0. It reaches to the
maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in T/4 sec (where, T is time period of the sin wave
of the supply = 1/f).
The average rate of change in flux d𝜙 /d𝑡 = 𝜙 𝑇 /4 =4 𝜙 𝑇 = 4 𝜙 f
The average EMF induced per turn = average rate of change in flux per turn = 4 𝜙 f
RMS value of e.m.f per turn = Form factor X Average e.m.f per turn
Form factor AC signal is 1.1, so
RMS value of e.m.f per turn = 1.1 x 4 𝜙 f = 4.4 𝜙 f
Induced EMF in per turn of the transformer windings is = 4.4 𝜙 f
Induced EMF in the primary winding is E1 = 4.4 N1 𝜙 f
Induced EMF in the secondary winding is E2 = 4.4 N2 𝜙 f
E1/E2 = N1/N2 = K (turns ratio).
If K > 1 then it is step down transformer (E1 > E2, N1> N2)
If K < 1 then it is step up transformer (E1 < E2, N1<N2)
Electrical power in primary winding is equal to power in the secondary winding
P = E1I1 = E2I2
𝐄𝟏 𝐈 𝟏
𝐊
𝐄 𝐈𝟏
Three-Phase Induction Motor
Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator carries a 3-
phase winding (called stator winding) while the rotor carries a short-circuited winding (called
rotor winding). Only the stator winding is fed from 3-phase supply. The rotor winding derives its
voltage and power from the externally energized stator winding through electromagnetic induction
and hence the name. The induction motor may be considered to be a transformer with a rotating
secondary and it can, therefore, be described as a “transformer- type” a.c. machine in which
electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.

Advantages:

(i) It has simple and rugged construction.

(ii) It is relatively cheap.
(iii) It requires little maintenance.
(iv) It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.
(v) It has self-starting torque.

Disadvantages:

(i) It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be changed easily
(ii) Its starting torque is inferior to dc shunt motor.
Construction:
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii) rotor.
The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm,
depending on the power of the motor.
1. Stator:

It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of thin laminations
of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses.
A number of evenly spaced slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminations as shown
in Fig. (8.1).The insulated laminations are connected to form a balanced 3-phase star or delta
connected Fig.(8.1) circuit. The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as
per requirement of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and vice-
versa. When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces currents in the rotor by electromagnetic
induction.

2. Rotor
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer periphery. The
winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the following two types:
(i) Squirrel cage type
(ii) Wound type

(i) Squirrel cage rotor:

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer periphery. One copper
or aluminium bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are joined at each end by metal rings called
end rings as shown in fig (1). This forms a permanently short-circuited winding which is
indestructible.

The entire construction (bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and hence the name. The
rotor is not connected electrically to the supply but has current induced in it by transformer action
the stator.

Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage induction
motors. Most of 3-phase induction motors use squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably simple
and robust construction enabling it to operate in the most adverse circumstances. However, it
suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the rotor bars are permanently
short-circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance to the rotor circuit to have a
large starting torque.

Fig (1) Fig(2)

(ii) Wound rotor:

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase winding, similar to the one on the
stator as shown (2). The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually star-
connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to three insulated slip
rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting on each slip ring. The three brushes are
connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat as shown in Fig. (3). at starting, the external
resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large starting torque. These resistances are
gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.

Fig (3)
The external resistances are used during starting period only. When the motor attains normal
speed, the three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor.

Synchronous Generator or Alternator:

A synchronous generator is a synchronous machine which converts mechanical power into AC
electric power through the process of electromagnetic induction.

Synchronous generators are also referred to as alternators or AC generators. The term

"alternator" is used since it produces AC power. It is called synchronous generator because it must
be driven at synchronous speed to produce AC power of the desired frequency.

A synchronous generator can be either single-phase or poly-phase (generally 3phase).

Construction of Synchronous Generator or Alternator

As alternator consists of two main parts viz.
 Stator – The stator is the stationary part of the alternator. It carries the armature winding
in which the voltage is generated. The output of the alternator is taken form the stator.
 Rotor – The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. The rotor produces the main field
flux.
 Stator Construction of Alternator

The stator of the alternator includes several parts, viz. the frame, stator core, stator or armature
windings, and cooling arrangement.

 The stator frame may be made up of cast iron for small-size machines and of welded steel for
large-size machines.
 The stator core is assembled with high-grade silicon content steel laminations. These silicon
steel laminations reduce the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the stator core.
 The slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core. A 3-phase armature winding is put
in these slots.
 The armature winding of the alternator is star connected. The winding of each phase is
distributed over several slots. When current flows through the distributed armature winding, it
produces an essential sinusoidal space distribution of EMF.

Rotor Construction of Alternator

The rotor of the alternator carries the field winding which is supplied with direct current through
two slip rings by a separate DC source (also called exciter). The exciter is generally a small DC
shunt generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.

For the alternator, there are two types of rotor constructions are used viz. the salient-pole
type and the cylindrical rotor type.

Salient Pole Rotor:

The term salient means projecting. Hence, a salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting out
from the surface of the rotor core. This whole arrangement is fixed to the shaft of the alternator
as shown in the figure. The individual field pole windings are connected in series such that when
the field winding is energized by the DC exciter, the adjacent poles have opposite polarities
 The salient pole type rotor is used in the low and medium speed (from 120 to 400 RPM)
alternators such as those driven by the diesel engines or water turbines because of the following
reasons –

 The construction of salient pole type rotor cannot be made strong enough to withstand the
mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speed.

 If the salient field pole type rotor is driven at high speed, then it would cause windage loss
and would tend to produce noise.

Low speed rotors of the alternators possess a large diameter to provide the necessary space for
the poles. As a result, the salient pole type rotors have large diameter and short axial length.

Cylindrical Rotor:

The cylindrical rotors are made from solid forgings of high-grade nickel-chrome-molybdenum
steel.
 The construction of the cylindrical rotor is such that there are no-physical poles to be seen
as in the salient pole rotor.
 In about two-third of the outer periphery of the cylindrical rotor, slots are cut at regular
intervals and parallel to the rotor shaft.
 The field windings are placed in these slots and are excited by DC supply. The field
winding is of distributed type.
 The unslotted portion of the rotor forms the pole faces.
 It is clear from the figure of the cylindrical rotor that the poles formed are non-salient, i.e.,
they do not project out from the rotor surface.
The cylindrical type rotor construction is used in the high-speed (1500 to 3000 RPM) alternators
such as those driven by steam turbines because of the following reasons −

 The cylindrical type rotor construction provides a greater mechanical strength and permits
more accurate dynamic balancing.
 It gives noiseless operation at high speeds because of the uniform air gap.
 The flux distribution around the periphery of the rotor is nearly a sine wave and hence a
better EMF waveform is obtained.

A cylindrical rotor alternator has a comparatively small diameter and long axial length.

The cylindrical rotor alternators are called turbo-alternators or turbo-generators.

The alternator with cylindrical rotor has always horizontal configuration installation.

Working Principle and Operation of Alternator:

An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, i.e.,
when the flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. When the
armature winding of alternator subjected to the rotating magnetic field, the voltage will be
generated in the armature winding.

When the rotor field winding of the alternator is energised from the DC exciter, the alternate N
and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in the anticlockwise direction by
a prime mover, the armature conductors placed on the stator are cut by the magnetic field of the
rotor poles. As a result, the EMF is induced in the armature conductors due to electromagnetic
induction. This induced EMF is alternating one because the N and S poles of the rotor pass the
armature conductors alternatively.
The direction of the generated EMF can be determined by the Fleming‟s right rule and the
frequency of it is given by,

Where,
 Ns is the synchronous speed in RPM
 P is the number of rotor poles.

The magnitude of the generated voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of the rotor and the
DC field excitation current. For the balanced condition, the generated voltage in each phase of the
winding is the same but differ in phase by 120° electrical.
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC):

The term PMMC is the short form of “permanent magnet moving coil”. This instrument is simple
as well as most frequently used on ships with sophisticated names. These instruments are used
when an exact measurement is required as well as to aid while maintaining electrical equipment.
Apart from PMMC, it is also called as D‟alvanometer. It is a kind of galvanometer that works on
the principle of D‟Arsonval.

PMMC INSTRUMENT

These instruments use permanent magnets to create the stationary magnetic field in the coils, and
then it is used with the moving coil that is connected to the electric source for generating
deflection torque according to the Fleming left-hand rule theory.

The PMMC instrument working principle is when the torque is applied to the moving coil that is
placed within the permanent magnet field, and then it gives a precise result for DC measurement.

Working Principle of a PMMC Instrument

Whenever a current caring conductor is located within a magnetic field, then it experiences a force
that is perpendicular to the current & the field. Based on the rule of “Fleming left hand”, if the
thumbnail of the left hand, middle and forefinger are at 90 degrees with each other.

After that the magnetic field will be in the forefinger, flow of current will be across the middle
finger and finally, the force will be through the thumb finger.

Once the current flow within the coil on the aluminium former, the magnetic field can be
generated in the coil in proportion to the current flow
The electromagnetic force throughout the fixed magnetic field from the permanent magnet
generates the deflection force within the coil. After that the spring generates the force to resist
additional deflection; therefore it helps to balance the pointer.

So damping force can be generated within the system through the aluminium core movement of
the magnetic field. It maintains the pointer stable to a point. Once it attains equilibrium by
controlling & deflection torque to provide accuracy in measurement.

PMMC Instrument Construction

The construction of the PMCC instrument can be done using several parts where the permanent
magnet and moving coils are essential parts. Each part of this instrument is discussed below.

PMMC Construction

Moving Coil

It is an essential component of the PMMC instrument. The designing of this coil can be done by
wounding copper coils to a rectangular block among the magnetic poles. It is made with
Aluminium and the rectangular block can be called Aluminium former rotated into the jeweled
bearing. So it permits the coil to turn freely.

Once the current is supplied throughout these coils, then it gets a deflection within the field, then
it is used to find out the voltage or current magnitude. The aluminium is a non-metallic former,
used to measure the current whereas the metallic former including high electromagnetic damping
is used to calculate the voltage.

Magnet System

The PMMC instrument includes two high-intensity magnets otherwise a „U‟ shaped magnet-based
design. The designing of these magnets can be done with Alnico & Alcomax for higher superior
field intensity & coercive force. In several designs, an extra soft iron cylinder can be arranged
among the magnetic poles to create the field identical; while decreasing air reluctance for
increasing the strength of the field.
Control

In the PMMC device, the torque can be controlled due to the springs which are fabricated with
phosphorous bronze. These springs are arranged among the two jewel bearings. The spring
provides the lane to the lead current to supply in & out of the moving coil. The torque can be
controlled mainly due to the delay of the ribbon.

Damping Torque

Damping torque can be generated within the PMMC instrument using the aluminum core‟s
movement within the magnetic field.

So the pointer can be kept at rest after the early deflection. It assists in the right measurement
devoid of fluctuations. Because of the movement of the coil within the magnetic field, eddy
current can be generated within the aluminium former. This generates the damping force
otherwise torque to resist the motion of the coil. Gradually the deflection of the pointer will be
reduced and lastly, it will stop at a permanent position.

Pointer and Scale

In this instrument, the connection of the pointer can be done through the moving coil. It notices
the moving coil‟s deflection. The magnitude of their derivation can be displayed on the scale. The
pointer within the instrument can be designed with lightweight material. Thus, it can be simply
deflected through the coil‟s movement. Sometimes, the parallax error can occur within the device
which is simply decreased by properly arranging the pointer‟s blade.

Torque Equation
The equation involved in the PMCC instrument is the torque equation. The deflecting torque
induces due to the coil‟s movement and this can be expressed with the equation shown below.

Td = NBLdI

Where,

„N‟ is the no. of turns in the coil

„B‟ is the density of flux within the air gap

„L‟ &‟d‟ are vertical as well as horizontal lengths of the surface

„I‟ is the flow of current in the coil

Now for a moving coil instruments deflecting torque should be proportional to current,
mathematically, we can write Td = GI.

Thus on comparing we say, G = NBLd

The restoring torque can be provided to the moving coil can be done with the spring and it can be
expressed as
Tc = K θ („K‟ is the spring constant)

Final deflection can be done through the equation Tc = Td

Substitute the values of Tc & Td in the above equation, then we can get

Kθ = NBLdI

We know that G = NBLd

Kθ = GI

θ= GI/K

I = (K/G) θ

From the above equation, we can conclude that the deflection torque can be directly proportional
to the flow of current in the coil.

Advantages of PMMC Instrument

 The scale in the instrument can be divided properly

 It generates no losses because of hysteresis.
 It uses less power
 It is not influenced by the stray magnetic field.
 High accuracy
 It is used as a voltmeter/ammeter with appropriate resistance.
 This instrument can measure the voltage & current with different ranges
 This instrument uses shelf shielding magnet so it is applicable in aerospace
Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument

 It works with only DC

 It is expensive compare with other alternative instruments
 It is delicate
 It shows an error because of the magnetism loss in permanent magnet
Applications of PMMC Instrument

 Ammeter
 Galvanometer
 Ohmmeter
 Voltmeter
MOVING IRON (MI) INSRUMENTS:

Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current
or voltage is known as the moving iron instrument. It works on the principle that the iron
place near the magnet attracts towards it. The force of attraction depends on the strength of
the magnet field. The magnetic field induces by the electromagnet whose strength depends on the
magnitude of the current passes through it.

Construction of Moving Iron Instrument

The plate or vane of soft iron is used as the moving element of the instrument. The vane is so
placed that it can freely move in the magnetic field of the stationary coil. The conductor makes the
stationary coil, and it is excited by the voltage or current whose magnitude is used to be measured.

The moving iron instrument uses the stationary coil as an electromagnet. The electromagnet is the
temporary magnet whose magnetic field strength increases or a decrease with the magnitude of
the current passes through it.

Working of the Moving Iron Instrument

The moving iron instruments use the stationary coil of copper or aluminium wire which acts as an
electromagnet when an electric current passes through it. The strength of the magnetic field
induces by the electromagnet is directly proportional to the current passes through it.

The plates or vane of the iron pass through the coil increases the inductance of the stationary coil
(the inductance is the property of the conductor which increases their electromotive force when
the varying current passes through it).

The electromagnet attracts the iron vane. The vane passes through the coil tries to occupy the
minimum reluctance path (the reluctance is the property of the magnet which opposes the flow
of electric current).

The vane passes through the coil experience a force of repulsion caused by the electromagnet. The
repulsion force increases the strength of the coil inductance.
This happens because the inductance and reluctances are inversely proportional to each other.

Classification of the Moving Iron Instruments

The attraction and the repulsion are the types of the moving iron instruments. Their detail
explanation is shown below.

1. Attraction Type – The instrument in which the iron plate attracts from the weaker field
towards the stronger field such type of instrument is known as the attraction type instrument.

Construction of Attraction Type Instrument – The stationary coil of the attraction type
instrument is flat and has a narrow opening. The moving element is the flat disc of the iron core.
The current flow through the stationary coil produced the magnetic field which attracts the iron
coil.
The iron vane deflects from the low magnetic field to the high magnetic field, and the strength of
the deflection is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flow through it. In short, we
can say that the iron coil attracts towards in.

The attraction type instruments use spring, which provided the controlling torque. The deflection
of the coil is reduced by the aluminium piston which is attached to the moving coil.

2. Repulsion Type Instruments – The repulsion type instrument has two vanes or iron plates.
One is fixed, and the other one is movable. The vanes become magnetised when the current passes
through the stationary coil and the force of repulsion occur between them. Because of a repulsive
force, the moving coil starts moving away from the fixed vane.

The spring provides the controlling torque. The air friction induces the damping torque, which
opposes the movement of the coil. The repulsion type instrument is a non-polarized instrument,
i.e., free from the direction of current passes through it. Thus, it is used for both AC and DC.
Advantages of the MI Instruments

The following are the advantages of the moving iron instruments.

1. Universal use – The MI instrument is independent of the direction of current and hence used
for both AC and DC.
2. Less Friction Error – The friction error is very less in the moving iron instrument because
their torque weight ratio is high. The torque weight ratio is high because their current
carrying part is stationary and the moving parts are lighter in weight.
3. Cheapness – The MI instruments require less number of turns as compared to PMMC
instrument. Thus, it is cheaper.
4. Robustness – The instrument is robust because of their simple construction. And also
because their current carrying part is stationary.
Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments.

The following are the disadvantages of Moving Iron Instrument.

1. Accuracy – The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform, and hence the accurate
result is not possible.
2. Errors – Some serious error occurs in the instruments because of the hysteresis, frequency
and stray magnetic field.
3. Waveform Error – In MI instrument the deflection torque is not directly proportional to the
square of the current. Because of which the waveforms error occurs in the instrument.
4. Difference between AC and DC calibration – The calibration of the AC and DC are
differed because of the effect of the inductance of meter and the eddy current which is used
on AC. The AC is calibrated on the frequency at which they use.
Two type of error occurs in the MI instruments i.e., the error which occurs on both AC and DC
and the error which only occur on AC.

Wheatstone Bridge
Definition: The device uses for the measurement of minimum resistance with the help of
comparison method is known as the Wheatstone bridge. The value of unknown resistance is
determined by comparing it with the known resistance. The Wheatstone bridge works on
the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances are equal, and no current flows
through the galvanometer. The bridge is very reliable and gives an accurate result.

In normal condition, the bridge remains in the unbalanced condition, i.e. the current flow through
the galvanometer. When zero current passes through the galvanometer, then the bridge is said to
be in balanced condition. This can be done by adjusting the known resistance P, Q and the
variable resistance S.

The working of the bridge is similar to the potentiometer. The Wheatstone bridge is only used for
determining the medium resistance. For measuring the high resistance, the sensitive ammeter is
used in the circuit.
 Construction of Wheatstone Bridge

The basic circuit of the Wheatstone bridge is shown in the figure below. The bridge has four arms
which consists two unknown resistance, one variable resistance and the one unknown resistance
along with the e.m.f source and galvanometer.

The e.m.f supply is attached between point a and b, and the galvanometer is connected between
point c and d. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference across it.

Working of Galvanometer

The bridge is in balance condition when no current flows through the coil or the potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero. This condition occurs when the potential difference
across the a to b and a to d are equal, and the potential differences across the b to c and c to d
remain same.

The current enters into the galvanometer divides into I1 and I2, and their magnitude remains same.
The following condition exists when the current through the galvanometer is zero.

The bridge in a balanced condition is expressed as

Where E – e.m.f of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and 12 in equation (1) we get.

The equation (2) shows the balance condition of the Wheatstone bridge.

The value of unknown resistance is determined by the help of the equation (3). The R is the
unknown resistance, and the S is the standard arm of the bridge and the P and Q are the ratio arm
of the bridge.

Errors in Wheatstone Bridge

The following are the errors in the Wheatstone bridge.

1. The difference between the true and the mark value of the three resistances can cause the
error in measurement.
2. The galvanometer is less sensitive. Thus, inaccuracy occurs in the balance point.
3. The resistance of the bridge changes because of the self-heating which generates an error.
4. The thermal emf cause serious trouble in the measurement of low-value resistance.
5. The personal error occurs in the galvanometer by taking the reading or by finding the null
point.
The above mention error can be reduced by using the best qualities resistor and galvanometer. The
error because of self-heating of resistance can minimise by measuring the resistance within the
short time. The thermal effect can also be reduced by connecting the reversing switch between the
battery and the bridge.

Limitation of Wheat Stone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge gives inaccurate readings if it is unbalanced. The Wheatstone bridge
measures resistance from few ohms to megohms. The upper range of the bridge can be increased
with the help of the applied emf, and the lower range is limited by connecting the lead at the
binding post.
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge is more sensitive when all their resistances are equal, or their ratio is
unity. Their sensitivity decreases when their ratio is less than unity. The reduction in sensitivity
reduces the accuracy of the bridge.