MODULE 8 rewards and punishments), 1.

Learning Through
Bandura showed that Observation: People
Birth and Early Life: Born in
learning often occurs by acquire knowledge and
Alberta, Canada, in 1925,
observing and imitating behaviors by observing
youngest of six children.
others' actions, even others.
Education: without direct rewards.
2. Internal Mental States:
• B.A. in Psychology • Examples: A child might Cognitive processes play a
(University of British learn to wave goodbye by crucial role in learning, but
Columbia, 1949). watching an adult do it or learning does not always
develop aggressive result in immediate behavior
• Ph.D. in Psychology behaviors by observing change.
(University of Iowa, 1952), violent role models.
influenced by behaviorism 3. Reciprocal Interaction:
and learning theory. What Is Albert Bandura's Human behavior is
Approach to Psychology? influenced by a dynamic
• Career Milestones: Albert Bandura's approach to interplay of cognitive,
psychology is rooted in his behavioral, and
• Began teaching at Stanford
social learning theory, which environmental factors.
University in 1953.
posits that people, particularly
Explanation:
• Collaborated with graduate children, learn by observing
student Richard Walters, and imitating others in social • Observation: Watching
leading to Adolescent contexts. His famous Bobo doll others' behaviors and the
Aggression (1959). experiment demonstrated how consequences of those
observation influences actions helps individuals
• Served as APA President behavior. The theory highlights learn how to act in similar
(1973). the role of observational situations. For example, a
• Awarded APA's learning, imitation, and person might learn effective
Distinguished Scientific modeling, emphasizing that conflict resolution by
Contributions Award (1980). behaviors, attitudes, and observing someone handle
emotional responses can be disputes calmly.
• Received the Gold Medal acquired by watching others.
Award for Life Achievement • Mental States: Learning
in the Science of Explanation: involves more than external
Psychology (2006). reinforcement; internal
• Social Context: Bandura's
processes like attention,
WHAT IS SOCIAL LEARNING theory suggests that much
memory, and motivation
THEORY? of human learning happens
are essential. Someone may
Albert Bandura's social learning in social settings where
learn a skill but not
theory integrates traditional people observe and
demonstrate it until the
learning concepts with the idea interact with others.
situation calls for it.
that people learn not just • Bobo Doll Experiment:
through direct reinforcement • Reciprocal Determinism:
Bandura showed children a
but also by observing others. Bandura explained that our
video of an adult behaving
This process, called behavior is shaped by
aggressively toward a Bobo
observational learning or ongoing interactions
doll. The children who
modeling, allows individuals to between:
observed this were more
acquire new information and likely to imitate the - Cognitive Factors:
behaviors simply by watching aggressive actions, Thoughts, beliefs, and
others. Bandura highlighted demonstrating the power of expectations.
that children, in particular, tend observational learning. - Behavioral Factors:
to imitate and mirror the
Actions taken based on
behaviors of people around • Observational Learning:
learned behaviors.
them. While he agreed with Watching and learning from
- Environmental Factors:
behaviorist principles like others.
Social or physical
classical and operant
• Imitation: Reproducing the influences that provide
conditioning, Bandura
behaviors seen in others. context for behaviors.
expanded these ideas to
include the social context of • Modeling: Adopting Necessary condition for
learning. behaviors, attitudes, or effective modeling:
emotional responses based
Explanation: Attention - is essential for
on what is observed.
learning, as it determines what
• Observational Learning:
Basic Social Learning Concepts: we focus on. Factors like
Unlike traditional learning
Social learning theory centers uniqueness (distinctiveness),
theories that emphasize
on three core concepts: emotional relevance (affective
direct reinforcement (e.g.,
valence), usefulness (functional learn aggression by observing violently, even when the
value), and simplicity an adult model. After seeing adult wasn't present.
(complexity) influence either an aggressive or non-
2. Children who saw non-
attention. Personal traits, such aggressive adult, the children
aggressive models would
as sensory abilities, alertness, were observed to see if they
be less aggressive than
mindset, and past experiences, would imitate the behavior.
those who saw aggressive
also shape how much attention
models, and even less than
we give to something. Without
the control group.
attention, effective learning In Bandura's experiment, 72
cannot occur. children (36 boys, 36 girls) aged 3. Children would imitate
3 to 6 were divided into eight adults of the same gender.
Retention is the ability to store
groups. Some children were
and recall information after 4. Boys would show more
exposed to an aggressive adult
focusing on it. This involves aggression than girls.
model, others to a non-
creating mental representations
aggressive model, and a The results confirmed three
through methods like symbolic
control group received no predictions:
coding (using words or
treatment. The groups were
symbols), forming mental
further divided by gender and • Children exposed to
images, organizing information,
whether they observed a same- violent models imitated
and practicing it mentally
sex or opposite-sex model. the behavior.
(symbolic rehearsal) or
Bandura assessed the children's
physically (motor rehearsal). • Boys were more
initial aggression levels to
Retention ensures learned physically aggressive
ensure equal distribution. The
behaviors or information can be than girls, while girls
results showed that children
used later. were more verbally
who observed the aggressive
aggressive.
Reproduction is when you model imitated the behavior.
perform the behavior you Boys were more aggressive • Boys were more
observed, based on what than girls, engaging in more influenced by an
you've paid attention to and than twice as many aggressive opposite-gender model
retained. This requires physical acts. Children exposed to non- who was non-
ability and self-monitoring of aggressive models were less aggressive.
your actions. Motivation is aggressive than those in the
necessary for successful control group. Learning Through Observation
learning, as you need a reason occurs when individuals learn
to imitate the behavior. This can by watching and imitating
come from past rewards, others, called the model.
Boys were more influenced by
According to Bandura (1977),
expected incentives, or seeing observing a male adult acting
others rewarded for similar key factors that influence
violently than by a female
actions (vicarious modeling include:
model. In same-sex groups,
reinforcement). boys imitated physical 1. Characteristics of the
aggression more, while girls Model: People are more
Learning Through Observation
tended to imitate verbal likely to imitate those similar
Process of Observational
aggression. Bandura's to them, performing simpler
Learning
experiment demonstrated that or aggressive actions.
1. Attentional Processes: We behaviors, like aggression, can
pay more attention to be learned through observation 2. Attributes of the Observer:
behaviors that stand out, and imitation. In a 1965 follow- Individuals with low self-
making them easier to up, Bandura found children esteem, dependent
copy. were more likely to imitate personalities, or strong
aggressive behavior if the adult motivation are more likely to
2. Retention Processes: We imitate behaviors.
model was rewarded. Further
remember behaviors
studies, including those on 3. Reward Consequences: The
through words or mental
violent TV content, supported perceived rewards or
images.
the idea that television acts as outcomes of a behavior
3. Motor Production Processes: a source of behavior modeling. can affect whether it's
To replicate a behavior, we imitated, influencing self-
Albert Bandura's 1961 Bobo doll
must organize, monitor, and efficacy.
experiment tested whether
refine our actions.
children would imitate In the Bobo doll study,
4. Motivational Processes: We observed behaviors. He made Bandura showed that
need to value the behavior four predictions: children imitated aggressive
to imitate it. behavior they observed in
1. Children would replicate
aggressive behavior after adults when allowed to
In the Bobo doll experiment,
seeing an adult act interact with the doll later.
Bandura showed how children
People can learn by observing ethical standards don't apply in for tackling new tasks
others' behaviors and their certain situations, enabling effectively.
outcomes. Bandura identified inhumane behavior.
2. Vicarious Experiences
three types of models for
Strengths: (Social Role Models)
observational learning:
• Strong experimental Vicarious experiences, the
1. Live model: A real person
research second key source of self-
demonstrating a behavior.
efficacy, involve learning by
• Clinical applications, like
2. Verbal instructional model: observing others succeed.
using modeling in therapy
Descriptions or explanations Seeing similar people achieve
of a behavior. • Balances internal and goals boosts confidence in
external influences one's own abilities. Positive role
3. Symbolic model: Real or
models, like family members,
fictional characters in Weaknesses: teachers, or mentors, can
media displaying behaviors.
inspire and reinforce self-belief.
• Ethical concerns with using
Social learning theory suggests aggressive models in 3. Social Persuasion
that learning doesn’t always experiments
lead to a behavior change, as
• Limited time for fostering Verbal persuasion, like positive
learning can occur through
feedback and
observation without immediate self-regulation in classrooms
encouragement, boosts self-
action. Unlike behaviorists, who efficacy by helping individuals
• Doesn't address the
require behavior change to believe in their abilities. This
unconscious mind.
confirm learning, social learning influence is stronger when given
theorists emphasize cognition, MODULE 9 early, such as encouraging a
including awareness of future child to pursue their goals
rewards or punishments, which What is Self-Efficacy? confidently.
influences behavior. Self-efficacy, introduced by
4. Emotional and Physiological
Social Learning Theory bridges psychologist Albert Bandura in
States
behaviorist and cognitive 1977, refers to a person’s belief
learning theories. in their ability to successfully
A person's emotional, physical,
carry out actions needed to
and psychological well-being
Direct Reinforcement: Learning handle specific situations. It
affects their self-efficacy. While
isn’t only driven by external plays a key role in how people challenges like anxiety or
rewards; internal rewards like approach challenges and depression can make building
pride and satisfaction are also achieve goals. Other self-efficacy harder, it is still
important. perspectives, like Kathy Kolbe's, possible. How one interprets
highlight self-efficacy's their reactions matters more
1. Vicarious Reinforcement: than their intensity—confidence
connection to determination
Observing others being turns arousal into motivation,
and perseverance,
rewarded for a behavior while doubt makes it a barrier.
emphasizing its importance in
can motivate someone to
overcoming obstacles and
imitate that behavior. Managing anxiety and
leveraging cognitive strengths.
improving mood during
2. Self-Reinforcement:
How Does Self-Efficacy challenges can boost self-
Individuals control their own efficacy. Psychologist James
Develop?
rewards, encouraging Maddux expanded on
motivation through self- Albert Bandura (1977) states Bandura’s work by introducing
monitoring and self- individuals develop their self- a fifth source of self-efficacy:
judgment. efficacy beliefs by interpreting imaginal experiences, or
information from four main visualization.
Vicarious reinforcement
sources of influence.
explains that children observe
Building Self-Efficacy
whether others are rewarded or 1. Mastery Experiences
punished and adjust their (Performance Outcomes) • Emphasize Peer Modeling
behavior accordingly. Children
tend to imitate those they Mastery experiences, or past
successes in overcoming Peer modeling occurs when
identify with, like family someone learns by observing
members or media figures. challenges, are the most
others' behaviors and values,
powerful source of self-efficacy.
applicable at any age. It's
Aggression and Moral Success strengthens
especially effective for children
Disengagement: Bandura found confidence, while early failures learning from close role models
that exposure to violence in can weaken it. Practicing new like family, teachers, or friends.
media leads to aggression in skills not only improves In workplaces, employees
children. Moral disengagement performance but also reinforces demonstrating success and
occurs when individuals the belief in one's ability to learn good behavior can inspire
convince themselves that and succeed, which is essential peers to emulate them.
• Seek Feedback Mart van Dinther's research 6. “I am confident that I can
(2011) found that self-efficacy is perform effectively on many
Some people mistake a lack of tied to students' strategies, different tasks”
feedback for positive goals, and academic 7. “Compared to other
feedback, but proper achievements. Higher self- people, I can do most tasks
feedback is crucial for building efficacy supports better school very well”
self-efficacy. To be effective, performance and healthier 8. “Even when things are
feedback should be frequent study habits like organization tough, I can perform quite
and clear, helping individuals and goal-setting. well.”
understand what they are
doing well and what needs Treating Phobias Confidence vs. Self-Efficacy
improvement. Detailed
feedback boosts self-efficacy Bandura (1982) found that self- Bandura (1977) distinguished
and task performance. efficacy helps treat phobias. In self-efficacy from confidence,
an experiment, participants as confidence is a general
• Encourage Participation who directly faced their fear of belief in one's abilities, while self-
snakes had higher self-efficacy efficacy specifically refers to
Participation is key to boosting and less fear compared to belief in one's capability to
self-efficacy, as it encourages those who only observed achieve specific goals. Self-
engagement and active others. This shows direct efficacy includes both the
learning. Students who experience is more effective strength of belief and
participate more not only than observation for affirmation of capability, unlike
absorb more information but overcoming fears. confidence.
also develop critical thinking
skills. Active participation fosters “People's beliefs about their Motivation vs. Self-Efficacy
peer learning and allows abilities have a profound effect
individuals to model behaviors on those abilities. Ability is not a Motivation is the desire to
that help others build their own fixed property; there is a huge achieve a goal, while self-
self-efficacy. variability in how you perform. efficacy is the belief in one’s
People who have a sense of ability to achieve it. Though
• Allow People to Make Their self-efficacy bounce back from related, they are distinct.
Own Choices failure; they approach things in Motivation drives action, while
terms of how to handle them self-efficacy builds confidence
Self-accountability means rather than worrying about in success. Higher self-efficacy
taking responsibility for one's what can go wrong” (Bandura, can boost motivation, and
own decisions, whether the 1977b). strong motivation often
outcome is good or bad. enhances self-efficacy,
Making your own choices How is Self-Efficacy Measured? creating a positive cycle.
allows you to learn from
mistakes. While advice from The General Self-Efficacy Scale Walter Mischel (1930–present)
others is helpful, it's ultimately up (GSE), created by Matthias
to the individual to take action Jerusalem and Ralf Schwarzer, Walter Mischel, a personality
and learn from their measures self-efficacy through researcher, challenged trait
experiences. 8 statements rated from 1 theories in 1968 by showing that
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly behavior isn't always consistent
Applications of Self-Efficacy agree). The average score across situations. Instead, it
reflects self-efficacy, with higher depends on situational cues.
High self-efficacy benefits daily scores indicating greater This idea led to his development
life by fostering resilience, confidence in overcoming of the cognitive-affective
reducing stress, promoting challenges and achieving model of personality,
healthy habits, boosting work goals. emphasizing the role of context
performance, and enhancing in shaping behavior.
educational success. 1. "I will be able to achieve
most of the goals that I The Person–Situation Debate
Healthy Habits have set for myself”
2. “When facing difficult tasks, The person–situation debate,
I am certain that I will sparked by Mischel, questions
According to health
accomplish them” whether traits or situations
psychologists, self-efficacy
3. “In general, I think that I can predict behavior. While traits
boosts confidence in carrying
obtain outcomes that are like intellect may be stable,
out healthy behaviors, like
important to me” other behaviors can change
sticking to exercise routines,
4. “I believe I can succeed at with context. Mischel showed
maintaining a healthy diet, or
most any endeavor to that both traits and situations
quitting smoking. This improves
which I set my mind” matter and urged researchers
both physical and mental well-
5. “I will be able to successfully to consider situational factors,
being.
overcome many finding that behavior is more
challenges” consistent within similar
Academic Success
situations than across different
ones.
Personality Signatures commit deviant acts), negative consequences) can
definitions (justifying the increase the likelihood of
Mischel proposed that behavior), differential repeated actions, including
personality is expressed through reinforcement (rewards versus criminal behavior. The
"if-then" behavior patterns— punishments), and imitation frequency, value, and
specific responses tied to (modeling behavior after probability of reinforcement
particular situations (e.g., others). impact how much it
"irritable when talked down to"). encourages behavior.
This approach, supported by Differential Association Reinforcement can be direct
studies, showed behavior varies (e.g., drug effects) or indirect
with context, challenging the Differential association theory (e.g., peer rewards), with social
idea that traits alone determine explains deviance through two reinforcement from peers and
actions. It offers a new way to dimensions: direct and indirect family being most influential.
understand both stability and interactions. Direct associations
variability in personality. are with close groups like family Imitation
and friends, while indirect
Self-Regulation associations are with more Imitation is when individuals
distant groups like teachers and copy behaviors they’ve
Mischel’s research on self- neighbors. These groups observed in others. The
regulation focuses on the ability influence an individual's likelihood of imitation depends
to delay gratification, as seen in behavior by exposing them to on factors like the
his famous marshmallow different views on acceptable characteristics of the model,
experiment. Children who could behavior and providing models the behavior itself, and the
wait for a better reward were to imitate. The timing, consequences witnessed.
more successful later in life, frequency, duration, and People, especially those close
showing that self-control is closeness of these associations to us, influence our behavior,
linked to academic and social are key factors in shaping both conforming and non-
success. Mischel emphasized behavior, with early and conforming. Imitation is
that both personal factors and frequent associations having particularly important when
the way people interpret the strongest impact. learning new behaviors but less
situations shape behavior, influential once the behavior is
suggesting that personality is Definitions established.
influenced by both situational
context and individual In social learning theory, Criticisms on the Limitations of
perception. definitions are an individual's Social Learning theory in the
values and attitudes about study of moral and values/
Bandura’s and Rotter’s Social- what is acceptable behavior. personhood development
Cognitive Theories of Personality These are learned through
interactions with others and can A major criticism of social
Bandura’s and Rotter’s social- either support or oppose learning theory is that it assumes
cognitive theories highlight the deviant actions. General deviant behaviors and attitudes
role of cognitive processes, like definitions involve broad are learned through association
thinking and judgment, in societal norms, while specific with deviant peers, but some
shaping personality. They focus definitions relate to particular argue that individuals may
on how individuals interpret behaviors. If a person has more develop these attitudes first and
experiences, set goals, and definitions favoring deviance, then seek out similar peers.
evaluate their capabilities, they're more likely to engage in Critics also point out that
which influence their behavior criminal behavior. Definitions delinquent behaviors may be
and interactions with the world. can also neutralize deviance by caused by low self-control,
justifying or excusing it. which leads to seeking out
MODULE 10 Ultimately, the likelihood of deviant peers. Social learning
deviance depends on the theorists respond by saying that
context and the balance of even if delinquency comes
Social learning theory is best
supportive or neutralizing before peer association, group
summarized by its leading
definitions. influence still plays a role.
proponent, Ronald L. Akers
Additionally, research has
(1998):
Differential Reinforcement shown that delinquent peers
Social learning theory suggests
often form close, loyal
that people are more likely to
Differential reinforcement refers relationships, which can support
engage in criminal or deviant
to how individuals are the onset and persistence of
behavior if they associate with
influenced by the rewards or delinquent behavior.
others who commit such acts,
view the behavior as punishments they expect from
acceptable, are exposed to their actions. Whether someone Recent Research Findings
criminal role models, and commits a crime depends on
anticipate greater rewards than past, present, and anticipated Social learning theory has been
punishments. The theory consequences. Positive supported by research showing
includes four key premises: reinforcement (rewards for strong links between its
differential association behavior) or negative concepts (like differential
(associating with others who reinforcement (removal of association, definitions,
imitation, and differential Social learning theory a set progression of
reinforcement) and criminal acknowledges the role of development based on age or
behaviors. Differential cognitive factors in behavior, stages. While it emphasizes
association, in particular, has like deciding whether to imitate environmental influences, it
been shown to significantly actions. However, it doesn't fully may overlook the child's natural
influence deviance, while explain how we develop development across various
definitions, imitation, and various behaviors based on our areas, even though certain
reinforcement also play a role, thoughts and feelings. It milestones may still occur
though less strongly. Studies overlooks the fact that we have regardless of their environment.
have applied the theory to control over our actions and
various behaviors, including don't necessarily repeat MODULE 11
aggression, violence, substance negative behaviors, such as
use, and terrorism. Research violence, just because we've Alfred Adler's Theories of
highlights the impact of family witnessed them. Individual Psychology and
and peer associations on Adlerian Therapy
behavior. Overall, the theory Weaknesses and Strength of
has been widely supported with Social Learning Theory Alfred Adler’s individual
minimal contradictory
psychology broke from Freud's
evidence. Strength: Change in focus on internal sexual conflicts
Environment, Change in the by emphasizing the importance
The Role of Peers Child of both internal and external
factors in understanding a
Exposure to family violence is a A key strength of social learning person. He believed that to truly
stronger predictor of aggression theory is its ability to explain understand someone,
in childhood, while peer behavioral differences based psychologists must consider the
influences become more on environment. It suggests that whole individual, hence the
important in adolescence. children learn within a social name "individual psychology."
Studies show that violent or context, so changes in their
delinquent peers are stronger surroundings can lead to Compensation,
predictors of adolescent changes in behavior. For Overcompensation, and
aggression than family factors. example, a child may struggle Complexes
Adolescents involved with with authority at home but
delinquent peers are more likely follow rules more easily in a Adler believed that the core of
to engage in violence, and the stricter school environment. neurosis was a sense of
timing of peer association
inferiority. People with this
influences delinquent behavior. Weakness: What About feeling spend their lives trying to
Research supports the idea that Accountability? overcome it but often do so in
negative peer associations, not
unrealistic ways, disconnected
family experiences, are the
A weakness of social learning from reality.
most significant predictors of
theory is that it focuses too
delinquency. Additionally,
much on how the environment Compensation for Weaknesses
positive relationships can help
influences a child’s behavior,
reduce delinquent behaviors in
while neglecting the child’s Adler believed that all infants
adolescents.
personal responsibility and how feel inferior as they begin to
they process information. It experience the world. This
Policy Implications places more emphasis on feeling drives them to
societal influences and less on compensate for weaknesses by
Social learning theory suggests the child's accountability for developing strengths. If a child
that deviant behavior is learned their own actions. receives proper care and
through family and peer
support, they learn to face
associations, which implies that Strength: Different Ways of challenges and accept
changing these influences can Learning imperfections, leading to
modify behavior. This has
normal development and
important policy implications,
A strength of social learning resilience.
advocating for programs that
theory is its recognition that
focus on prevention and
individuals can learn in multiple Overcompensation
rehabilitation, such as
ways, either through direct
mentoring, behavioral
experiences or by observing Sometimes, a child’s need to
modification, delinquency
others. For example, a child can compensate for feelings of
prevention, peer counseling,
learn social norms by inferiority becomes excessive,
and gang interventions. These
interacting with people or by leading to overcompensation.
programs aim to provide
watching others engage in This occurs when the child
positive experiences and role
conversations. strives so hard to overcome
models, helping young people
adopt conventional norms and weaknesses that it becomes
Weakness: Ignoring Standard unhealthy. Adler used the
reduce future criminal behavior.
Milestones example of Demosthenes, who,
despite his stutter,
Criticism of Social Learning
A weakness of social learning overcompensated by
Theory
theory is that it doesn't focus on
becoming Greece’s greatest authority. They are seen as For effective psychotherapy, a
orator. guardians of rules and law. strong, trusting relationship is
essential. The therapist must
Inferiority Complex Second-born show warmth and empathy,
building trust to allow gradual
Overcompensation can lead to Second-born children often feel progress.
an inferiority complex, where a pressured by the success of
person feels persistently their older sibling, motivating Phase 2: Assessment
inadequate and struggles to them to strive for superiority.
overcome their feelings of With encouragement, they can The therapist conducts a
inferiority. Adler distinguishes achieve their own success and detailed assessment of the
between primary inferiority, a work well with the first-born. client, focusing on feelings of
normal feeling in infants that inferiority, fictive goals,
motivates growth, and Youngest Child psychological movement,
secondary inferiority, which sense of community, activity
arises when this feeling Youngest children often feel levels, worldview (scheme of
becomes exaggerated and inferior and strive to prove apperception), and attitudes
harmful in adulthood, leading themselves. There are two toward key life areas like work
to an inferiority complex. types: one becomes highly and relationships. This is
successful and excels, while the achieved through early
Superiority Complex other struggles with low self- memory analysis and
confidence and avoids family psychological testing.
A superiority complex occurs interactions.
when someone feels the need Phase 3: Encouragement and
to prove they are better than Only Child Clarification
they really are. Adler explains
that this behavior, such as Only children, according to Encouragement helps clients
arrogance and aggression, Adler, can become highly reduce inferiority feelings.
often stems from underlying dependent on others, seeking Therapists acknowledge the
feelings of inferiority. Essentially, constant support and client’s courage and guide
a superiority complex is a guidance. They may also view them to take small steps, like
defense mechanism used to the world as hostile due to their expanding their activities. Using
escape from the difficulties parents' overprotection. Socratic questioning, therapists
caused by an inferiority clarify the client’s core beliefs,
complex. challenge their private logic,
Adlerian Psychotherapy
and address psychological
Personality Typology, or Styles movement toward their fictive
The following section is a
of Life goals.
summary of the six stages of
Adlerian psychotherapy, which
Adler rejected the idea of rigid Phase 4: Interpretation
was developed by Stein and
personality types, as it Edwards (2002). These stages
overlooked individual serve as a guide, since every When the client is ready, the
uniqueness. However, he individual’s journey will have a therapist interprets their style of
recognized patterns of slightly different path. life, linking it to their goals and
behavior in childhood, known progress. This step requires care
as "styles of life," which could and sufficient encouragement,
As Adler (2013a) put it, “Just as
help predict future behavior. By as exploring issues like inferiority
one cannot find two leaves of a
analyzing a person's style of life can be challenging but
tree absolutely identical, so one
and comparing it to socially transformative.
cannot find two human beings
adjusted norms, psychologists
absolutely alike” (p. 102).
could gain insights into their Phase 5: Style of Life Redirection
future actions.
In Adlerian psychotherapy, the
goal is to help patients The therapist helps redirect the
Birth Order client’s style of life toward
overcome feelings of inferiority
by: satisfaction by addressing
Adler believed that birth order inferiority, adjusting goals, and
had a significant and fostering community feelings,
1. Reducing exaggerated
predictable impact on a child's using methods tailored to the
feelings of inferiority to a
personality, with each position client’s needs.
manageable level.
in the family influencing
2. Addressing the superiority
behavior and traits. Phase 6: Meta-therapy
complex and stopping the
constant need to outdo
First-born others. Some clients pursue personal
3. Encouraging a sense of growth toward values like truth,
First-born children often receive community and equality. beauty, and justice. The
more attention and therapist supports this journey,
responsibility, which gives them Phase 1: Establishing the helping them strive to be their
a sense of power and a Therapeutic Relationship best selves through tailored
tendency to value order and guidance.
Critical Evaluation Bandura and Vygotsky on the The macrosystem, in
environment's role in learning. Bronfenbrenner's theory, refers
Adlerian psychology faces to the broader cultural and
criticism for being unscientific The Five Ecological Systems societal factors that influence a
and hard to prove, particularly child's development, such as
its focus on unconscious goals, Bronfenbrenner (1977) socioeconomic status, ethnicity,
which some argue is proposed that a child’s and values. It looks at the larger
unfalsifiable. While environment is made up of society and culture the child is
neuroscience has offered some nested structures: microsystem, part of, impacting their beliefs
support, Adlerian therapy is mesosystem, exosystem, and experiences. For example,
seen as simple and relatable macrosystem, and a child in a wealthy country
but lacking empirical depth chronosystem. These systems may develop differently from
and broader foundations are interrelated, meaning each one in a poorer country due to
beyond concepts like birth one impacts the child’s cultural and economic
order and early memories. development based on its differences.
interaction with the others.
How did Adler Disagree with The Chronosystem
Freud? The Microsystem
The chronosystem, the final
Sigmund Freud The microsystem is the level of Bronfenbrenner's theory,
immediate environment around focuses on the changes and
• Behavior is driven by a child, including family, events that happen over time,
instincts like sex and teachers, and peers. It involves affecting a child's
aggression. bi-directional relationships, development. This includes
• Personality is shaped by meaning both the child and both normal transitions, like
childhood, with no choice others influence each other. starting school, and non-
involved. Positive relationships, like a normative events, like divorce
• Focus on unconscious close bond with parents, or moving to a new house.
processes and the past. support healthy development,
• Personality consists of the id, while negative interactions, like The Bioecological Model
ego, and superego. distant parenting, can harm the
• Relationship with the same- child. Bronfenbrenner later revised his
sex parent is crucial. theory to the "Bioecological
The Mesosystem model," focusing on how
Alfred Adler ongoing interactions in a
The mesosystem involves person's immediate
• Behavior is driven by social interactions between different environment shape
influences and the goal of parts of a child's microsystem, development. He emphasized
superiority. like between parents and the importance of proximal
• People are responsible for teachers or peers and siblings. processes—complex
their actions. These connections can interactions between a person
• Behavior is future-oriented influence the child’s and their surroundings. These
and goal-driven. development. For example, processes vary by individual,
• People are aware of their when parents and teachers context, and developmental
actions and reasons. work well together, it positively outcome, so understanding
• Adler emphasized studying affects the child, but conflict their effects requires
the individual as a whole. between them can have considering all these factors.
• Family relationships, negative effects.
including siblings, are key. Critical Evaluation
The Exosystem
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Bronfenbrenner's Ecological
Systems Theory The exosystem, part of Systems Theory became
Bronfenbrenner's ecological popular for studying child
Background and History systems theory, includes social development because it
settings that don't directly provides a holistic view of the
involve the child but still different systems children
Urie Bronfenbrenner criticized
influence their development interact with. It is especially
earlier child development
through interactions in other helpful for understanding
theories for focusing on artificial
systems. Examples are the immigrant children's
lab settings and unidirectional
parent's workplace, friends, or development, as their
influences (e.g., mother on
media. For instance, if a parent experiences are shaped by
child). He argued that real-
has a conflict at work, it might cultural differences. However,
world environments and
affect their mood at home, the theory has some limitations,
interactions, including the
indirectly impacting the child's such as limited research on how
child’s influence on others, are
development. different systems interact (like
key. His Ecological Systems
neighborhoods and families)
Theory examines how various
and difficulty in testing its
contexts affect development, The Macrosystem
effects. It can also lead to
aligning with ideas from
assumptions that a lack of
positive ecological systems will MODULE 12 Hard Determinism
always negatively affect
development, but some people Nature of the Will Hard determinism argues that
thrive despite challenging all actions, including human
environments. The "will" refers to the mind's behavior, are caused by
ability to drive purposeful external or internal factors,
Bronfenbrenner’s theory in the actions. leaving no room for true
21st century freedom, only the illusion of it.
• Classical view: A personal People cannot be morally
Although Bronfenbrenner's mental faculty (Plato, responsible for their actions if
theory was developed before Aristotle, Kant). they couldn't act otherwise.
the rise of technology, it can still • Conflict view: Result of Scientific determinism explains
apply today by including opposing forces in the mind behavior through heredity,
modern elements like social (Spinoza, Hume). environment, or other causal
media and video gaming in the • Personality view: Expression factors. Thinkers like Skinner and
exosystem. This shows that the of individual character Freud viewed human actions as
theory remains relevant and (Hobbes, Nietzsche). determined by laws,
adapts to new developments. • Modern psychology: Rejects unconscious drives, and
A recent study by Kelly and "will" as unscientific, focusing external influences rather than
Coughlan (2019) found links instead on unconscious free will. Despite this, concepts
between mental health motives and external like responsibility and
recovery in youth and influences (Skinner). punishment persist, often for
Bronfenbrenner's theory, social or behavioral purposes,
highlighting how relationships in even without genuine freedom.
Confirmation of the existence of
the child's ecological systems, the will
such as peers, family, and Soft Determinism (also called
school, influence mental health Compatibilism)
• Self-control: The ability to
development.
choose actions against
immediate desires or • Soft determinism, or
Classroom Application instincts. compatibilism, argues that
• Repulsive will: Sometimes, determinism and freedom
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological we pursue goals despite can coexist. It suggests that
Systems Theory connects child them being unpleasant to while actions have causes,
development with educational our senses. we are free when our
practice, emphasizing • Voluntary attention: actions stem from our own
collaboration between Directing focus intentionally, choices. Passive self-
teachers and parents. Positive even when it's challenging. determinism means we act
communication and freely as long as our actions
understanding family align with our desires, even
Determinism
circumstances, including social if those desires are
and economic factors, benefit influenced by external
Determinism is the idea that
the child. A strong parent- factors like genetics or
every event, including human
teacher relationship fosters culture. Thinkers like
actions, happens necessarily
positive development, while Augustine and Hume
and has a cause. Unlike
active student engagement in believed that freedom lies in
fatalism, which attributes events
academics and social choosing actions, even if
to fate regardless of choices,
interactions enhances learning outcomes are
determinism emphasizes
and growth. predetermined. Freedom is
multiple causes and denies the
understanding and
possibility of events without a
Empirical Evidence accepting that our choices
cause. Philosophically, it holds
are part of a determined
that uncaused events are
process, freeing us from
Studies support impossible, a view supported by
uncertainty.
Bronfenbrenner's theory by scientific discoveries that link
showing how the school behavior to identifiable causes.
environment impacts students. Indeterminism
Lippard et al. (2017) found that Ancient and modern versions:
positive teacher-child Indeterminism suggests that
relationships boost academic some actions, especially "free"
• Leucippus and Democritus
achievement and behavior. ones, occur without any cause
saw free will as an illusion,
Wilson et al. (2002) showed that and are purely random. It
with everything happening
a school ethos valuing diversity challenges the idea that all
out of necessity. D’Holbach
improves peer relationships. events are determined,
believed thoughts are
Langford et al. (2014) found proposing that chance is
determined by physical
that whole-school health necessary to explain the
laws governing the brain.
programs enhance student universe's diversity. Modern
Laplace argued that
well-being and achievement, physics shows that some
knowing all natural laws and
highlighting the role of subatomic events are
the universe's state could
microsystems in development. unpredictable and random,
allow prediction of all past
indicating that not everything is
and future events.
caused. This randomness allows action. Logotherapy helps acceptance, healthy stress
for the possibility of true individuals use their "spiritual" management, altruism, active
freedom and moral resources to overcome living, cognitive reappraisal,
responsibility, as our actions adversity. Key techniques courage, humor, optimism,
might influence the future in include dereflection, responsibility, spirituality, and a
unpredictable ways. paradoxical intention, and values-based lifestyle. These
Socratic dialogue to facilitate skills support the ability to cope
MODULE 13 this process. with adversity and hardship.

Viktor Frankl was an Austrian Dereflection Effectiveness

neurologist, psychiatrist,
philosopher, Holocaust survivor, Dereflection helps shift focus Having a sense of meaning or
and the founder of away from oneself and towards purpose is linked to better
logotherapy, a therapy focused others, reducing preoccupation health, happiness, and
on finding meaning in life as a with problems or worries. It resilience. Research shows that
central motivational force. He counters "hyper-reflection," people with mental or physical
was born on March 26, 1905, in where a person becomes health conditions may struggle
Vienna, and died on overly focused on anxiety- with finding meaning.
September 2, 1997, in the same inducing situations, often seen Logotherapy can improve life
city. He was married to in those with anticipatory satisfaction and has been
Eleonore Katharina Schwindt anxiety. effective in enhancing quality
and had a daughter, Dr. of life for adolescents with
Gabriele Frankl-Vesely. Paradoxical Intention cancer, reducing depression in
children, alleviating job
What Is Logotherapy? Paradoxical intention is a burnout, and increasing marital
technique where you are satisfaction.
Logotherapy, developed by encouraged to deliberately
Viktor Frankl, is a psychotherapy wish for or do the thing you fear Things to Consider
approach that helps people most. It is often used for anxiety
find personal meaning in life, or phobias, where humor or Logotherapy focuses on spiritual
focusing on the future and ridicule can reduce fear. For and philosophical concepts,
enduring hardship through example, if you fear looking helping people who feel lost or
purpose. After surviving Nazi foolish, you might try to look dissatisfied at a spiritual level. It
concentration camps, Frankl foolish on purpose, which can may not be suitable for those
detailed his theories in Man's help lessen the fear. who aren’t interested in these
Search for Meaning. He areas or who already feel they
believed that humans are Socratic Dialogue have life’s meaning figured out.
driven by a "will to meaning," It’s also not meant to be the
the desire to find purpose, and Socratic dialogue is a only treatment for certain
argued that life can have technique that helps you conditions; for example,
meaning even in the most uncover insights by analyzing someone with schizophrenia
difficult circumstances. your own words. The therapist may need additional
listens carefully, highlighting treatments alongside
Everything can be taken from a patterns in your speech to help logotherapy.
man but one thing: the last of you discover the meaning and
the human freedoms—to answers already within you. How to Get Started
choose one’s attitude in any
given set of circumstances, to What Logotherapy Can Help Logotherapy can be used as
choose one’s own way. — With the primary therapy or
VIKTOR FRANKL, MD, PHD combined with other
Research shows that finding treatments, and it can be
- This opinion was based on meaning in life is linked to better offered in person or online,
his experiences in the mental health, helping with individually or in groups. In
concentration camps and issues like anxiety, depression, sessions, your therapist will
his intent to find meaning grief, PTSD, and substance teach core principles, such as
through his suffering. In this abuse. Frankl believed that the importance of your body,
way, Frankl believed that many mental health problems mind, and spirit, the meaning of
when we can no longer stem from a lack of meaning, or life despite circumstances, and
change a situation, we are "existential vacuum." the freedom to find your own
forced to change ourselves. Logotherapy helps individuals meaning. You’ll be encouraged
find meaning, reducing to actively participate and take
Techniques existential angst and improving responsibility in your search for
well-being. purpose. Outside therapy, you
Frankl believed that suffering can apply its principles by
could lead to achievement creating, building relationships,
Benefits of Logotherapy
and personal growth. He saw finding purpose in pain,
guilt as a chance to improve accepting life's unfairness,
Logotherapy can enhance
and life transitions as focusing on others, and
resilience by helping individuals
opportunities for responsible develop skills such as
embracing your freedom to find Psychosynthesis emphasizes the Model of the person At the core
meaning. human impulse toward of psychosynthesis theory is the
wholeness, fostering a more Egg Diagram, which maps the
MODULE 14 authentic and connected human psyche into different
experience of life. It is especially distinct and interconnected
Roberto Assagioli was an Italian helpful for those facing personal levels.
psychiatrist and a pioneer in crises, existential concerns, or
humanistic and transpersonal seeking greater meaning and 1. Lower Unconscious
psychology. He was born on self-actualization. 2. Middle Unconscious
February 27, 1888, in Venice, 3. Higher Unconscious
Italy, and died on August 23, HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF 4. Field of Consciousness
1974, in Capolona, Italy. He PSYCHOSYNTHESIS 5. Conscious Self or "I"
graduated from the University 6. Higher Self
of Florence in 1910. His parents Psychosynthesis, developed by 7. Collective Unconscious
were Elena Kaula and Leone Roberto Assagioli in the early
Grego. 1900s, expanded on Lower unconscious
psychoanalysis by integrating
ROBERTO ASSAGIOLI spiritual, philosophical, and The lower unconscious,
holistic perspectives. Influenced according to Assagioli, contains
Roberto Assagioli, founder of by yoga, theology, and Carl repressed memories,
Psychosynthesis, combined Jung, Assagioli believed that complexes, and emotions like
psychoanalysis and spiritual individuals must achieve shame, fear, and rage. It
wisdom in his view of the whole harmony within themselves and represents painful, primal
human being. He believed that connect to a larger whole, like experiences tied to threats of
while psychology and spirituality their community or the world, in personal annihilation and the
are distinct, spiritual seekers order to find completeness. darker aspects of life. While it's
often need psychological often unconscious, this part of
support to integrate their THEORY AND PRINCIPLES the self isn't inherently bad but is
experiences. He also earlier, more primitive. Assagioli
recognized the importance of Psychosynthesis focuses on key believed that the goal is to
addressing the spiritual concepts like disidentification, create a balance with the
dimension in psychology. In the self, synthesis, and the lower unconscious, similar to
connection with this he said: superconscious. Freud's id or Jung's shadow, to
"One major reason why the Self Disidentification allows gain empathy and creativity in
is coming back into currency is individuals to move freely dealing with life's struggles.
the tremendous search for self- between thoughts, feelings,
identity. Formerly an individual and behaviors. Empathy is Middle unconscious
took himself so to speak for crucial for this process, as it
granted. He accepted himself enables authentic self- The middle unconscious
as he was, or, more frequently, exploration. The self is explored contains skills, behaviors,
he identified himself with the through introspection, and the feelings, and abilities that
group to which he belonged, will helps individuals make support normal conscious
family, tribe, clan, class, or conscious choices. Synthesis functioning without active
nation or, if he was religious, involves integrating various attention. It helps form patterns
with some great Being or God. subpersonalities into a cohesive in life, like learning to walk, talk,
But in our time, which may well whole. Lastly, the or master a profession. This part
be a time of total crisis, all these superconscious refers to a of the unconscious forms the
identifications fall away and the higher level of consciousness, foundation of everyday tasks.
individual is thrown back on accessed through peak Assagioli believed that personal
himself. This baffles him, he does experiences, which provides a healing and growth, involving
not know who he is and this is sense of connection and either the middle or lower
the chief reason for the deeper meaning. unconscious, is part of personal
widespread 'existential psychosynthesis.
anguish'." WHAT IS A PSYCHOSYNTHESIS
SESSION LIKE? Higher unconscious
WHAT IS PSYCHOSYNTHESIS?
Psychosynthesis is a type of talk The higher unconscious, or
Psychosynthesis, founded by therapy that focuses on superconscious, represents our
Roberto Assagioli, is a introspection and exploring the higher potentialities and
therapeutic approach focused unconscious. It encourages self- inspirations, often repressed or
on personal growth and the exploration to increase insight not available to conscious
integration of the physical, and foster growth. Techniques awareness. It becomes
emotional, cognitive, and used include guided imagery, apparent during peak
spiritual aspects of the self. It symbolic artwork, journaling, experiences, where individuals
encourages individuals to meditation, gestalt techniques, sense deeper meaning,
connect with a deeper sense of and creativity. The goal is to serenity, and unity with the
Self, transcending personal help individuals evolve and universe. This level includes
identities through a process develop personally. altruistic love, artistic inspiration,
called "Disidentification." spiritual insight, and the drive for
purpose. Assagioli believed that everyone, whether in private concepts are also applied in
contact with the higher reflection or interactions with education, medicine, and
unconscious can help others and the world. business to promote personal
individuals tap into their higher development and connection.
intuitions, contributing to Stages
personal growth and TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION
understanding. Assagioli's stages of
psychosynthesis outline a Psychosynthesis training involves
Subpersonalities process of personal growth, but attending workshops, either in-
they are not strictly linear. The person or online, at various
In psychosynthesis, stages are: levels. Advanced training
subpersonalities are different usually requires a degree in
aspects of the self that exist 1. Gaining thorough counseling or psychology.
within the personal knowledge of one’s Those who complete the
unconscious. Assagioli believed personality. training may qualify for
these subpersonalities vary in 2. Gaining control over its certification as a
complexity and can be various elements. psychosynthesis life coach.
integrated through a process of 3. Realizing one's true Self and Training is available both in the
recognition, acceptance, discovering a unifying U.S. and internationally.
coordination, and synthesis. This center.
process helps individuals 4. Psychosynthesis: forming or
discover their true, higher self reconstructing the
(the Transpersonal Self). Some personality around this new
subpersonalities may reflect center.
higher qualities or archetypes,
while others may resist These stages are
integration, preferring to remain interconnected, and individuals
in an undifferentiated state. may experience them in various
orders or revisit earlier stages at
"I" any time.

In psychosynthesis, "I" represents Methods

the core essence of a person,
reflecting their true self. It is Psychosynthesis is a flexible
distinct from the experiences approach to personal growth
and contents of the mind, yet and therapy, allowing the use
intimately connected to them. of various techniques like
"I" has two main functions: dialogue, Gestalt, dream work,
consciousness (awareness) and guided imagery, and more.
will. The will evolves through four Assagioli emphasized that the
stages: 1) not having will, 2) therapist's presence is more
realizing will exists, 3) important than specific
developing will, and 4) methods. Psychosynthesis can
becoming the will, drawing be applied in many contexts,
energy from the higher self. "I" is including psychotherapy, self-
the experiencer, not an object help, and creative expression. It
of experience, and can focuses on using obstacles as
influence awareness and focus. opportunities for growth,
It reflects the deeper Self but is retraining psychological
not an independent entity. functions, and transforming the
personality around a new
Self center. Psychosynthesis values
the complexity of human
Self (or Higher Self) is a source of experience, from trauma and
wisdom and guidance within a addiction to creativity and
person, transcending the spiritual growth.
conscious mind. It pervades all
aspects of the individual, and HOW CAN PSYCHOSYNTHESIS
engaging with it—Self- HELP?
realization—can lead to
personal growth in various Psychosynthesis is a broad
areas, such as creativity, psychological theory designed
spirituality, or addressing past to address a variety of issues like
wounds. "I" and Self are neuroses, trauma, anxiety, and
fundamentally one, but a depression. It focuses on
meaningful relationship with Self personal growth, helping
can also develop, much like a individuals understand
dialogue with a higher power. themselves and find meaning in
This relationship is available to life. Beyond therapy, its