Or 122 - CH 7
Or 122 - CH 7
OR 122
Biostatistics
Chapter 8:
Decision Theory
Structure of Decision-Making Problem
1) The decision maker: who is charged with the responsibility for making
decision-selection of one from a set of possible courses of action.
2) Acts: Are the alternative courses of action or strategies, that are available to
decision maker.
⇒ The decision maker has a control over choice of these acts.
3) States of nature (events): Determine the level of success for a given act.
⇒ The decision-maker has no control on them.
4) Uncertainty: It is indicated in terms of probabilities assigned to events.
Structure of Decision-Making Problem
5) Types of information:
I) Perfect information on problem.
⇒ In this case, we have decision making under certainty.
II) Partial or imperfect information.
⇒ In this case, we have two types of decision-making situations that are:
i) Decision under risk.
ii) Decision under uncertainty.
Structure of Decision-Making Problem
6) Payoff table: it takes the following form
States of nature
Alternatives 𝑆1 𝑆2 ⋯ 𝑆𝑛
𝑃1 𝑃2 ⋯ 𝑃𝑛
𝐴1 𝑟11 𝑟12 ⋯ 𝑟1𝑛
𝐴2 𝑟21 𝑟22 ⋯ 𝑟2𝑛
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝐴𝑚 𝑟𝑚1 𝑟𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑟𝑚𝑛
So, the best alternative for the investor is to invest the money in stock market as
𝐸 𝑎2 = 15.1 is the greatest value
Example 3
Solve the previous example using the other two criteria.
Solution:
State of nature State of nature
𝑆1 (0.2) 𝑆2 (0.3) 𝑆3 (0.5) 𝑆1 (0.2) 𝑆2 (0.3) 𝑆3 (0.5)
𝑎1
𝑎2
7-7
7-(-2)
10-8
10-10
25-12
25-25 ⇒ 𝑎1
𝑎2
0
9
2
0
13
0
𝑎3 7-6.5 10-8.5 25-16.5 𝑎3 0.5 1.5 8.5
Expected opportunity loss criterion: Construct the regret table. Then, find the
expectation, then take the min value if the question about profit, or cost.
Solution
The highest probability is 0.5 for the growth state, from the opposite table we have 𝑎2
with the highest payoff. Then, 𝑎2 is the best alternative.
Example 4
For the following cost table find the best alternative?
State of nature
𝑆1 (0.3) 𝑆2 (0.1) 𝑆3 (0.4) 𝑆4 (0.2)
𝑎1 8 9 5 12
𝑎2 10 12 6 12
𝑎3 17 5 8 15
Solution
𝐸 𝑎1 = 8 0.3 + 9 0.1 + 5 0.4 + 12 0.2 = 7.70
𝐸 𝑎2 = 10 0.3 + 12 0.1 + 6 0.4 + 12 0.2 = 9
𝐸 𝑎1 = 17 0.3 + 5 0.1 + 8 0.4 + 15 0.2 = 11.80
We need to find the average for the first and second columns then take the max
for the profit table or take min for the cost table [𝑎1 (cost), 𝑎3 (profit)].
Decision under uncertainty
❖ The decision-maker in this types does not have any information about the state of nature (events).
Instead, he has only these states.
❖Examples are the new phenomena such as increasing prices of Gold, Oli, Gas, …, etc.
The following examples show how can we use these criteria of decision under
uncertainty.
Example 5
What is the best alternative for the following cost table.
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆4
𝑎1 5 8 3 1
𝑎2 7 4 5 2
𝑎3 3 6 6 4
Solution
1) Using Laplace:
Let 𝑃 𝑆1 = 𝑃 𝑆2 = 𝑃 𝑆3 = 𝑃 𝑆4
1
⇒ 𝑃 𝑆𝑖 = ; 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4.
4
1 17
𝐸 𝑎1 = 5+8+3+1 = = 4.25
4 4
1 18
𝐸 𝑎2 = 7+4+5+2 = = 4.50
4 4
1 19
𝐸 𝑎3 = 3+6+6+4 = = 4.75
4 4
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆4 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆4
Max
𝑎1 5-3 8-4 3-3 1-1 𝑎1 2 4 0 0
⇒ ⇒
𝑎1 4
𝑎1 7 2 -1
𝑎2 3 6 2
𝑎3 0 3 8
Solution
1) Using Laplace:
Let 𝑃 𝑆1 = 𝑃 𝑆2 = 𝑃 𝑆3
1
⇒ 𝑃 𝑆𝑖 = ; 𝑖 = 1,2,3.
3
1 8
𝐸 𝑎1 = 7 + 2 − 1 = ≅ 2.7
3 3
1 11
𝐸 𝑎2 = 3+6+2 = ≅ 3.7
3 3
1 11
𝐸 𝑎3 = 0+3+8 = ≅ 3.7
3 3
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
Max
𝑎1 7-7 6-2 8-(-1) 𝑎1 0 4 9
⇒ ⇒
𝑎1 9
𝑎1 3 6 -1
𝑎2 8 5 4
𝑎3 -4 7 12
0 0.33 1 1.67
What is the probability of optimism that makes 𝑎3 the optimum alternative?
𝛼 = ?? 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 1 ⇒ (1)
V 𝑎1 = 6 𝛼 + −1 1 − 𝛼 = 7𝛼 − 1
V 𝑎2 = 8 𝛼 + 4 1 − 𝛼 = 4𝛼 + 4
V 𝑎3 = 12 𝛼 + (−4) 1 − 𝛼 = 16 𝛼 − 4
𝐴∗ = 𝐴3
⇒ 𝑉 𝐴3 > 𝑉 𝐴1 ⇒ 16 𝛼 − 4 > 7𝛼 − 1 ⇒ 9𝛼 > 3 ⇒ 𝛼 > 0.33 ⇒ (2)
and, 𝑉 𝐴3 > 𝑉 𝐴2 ⇒ 16 𝛼 − 4 > 4𝛼 + 4 ⇒ 12𝛼 > 8 ⇒ 𝛼 < 0.67 ⇒ (3)
For all 0.67 < 𝛼 ≤ 1 ⇒ 𝐴∗ = 𝐴3
Example 8
Consider the following cost table:
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆4
𝑎1 8 9 5 12
𝑎2 10 12 6 12
𝑎3 17 5 8 15