INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE:

BRIDGE ENGINEERING

SUBJECT:

PROFESSIONAL COURSE 1: SPECIALIZED COURSE (BRIDGE ENGINEERING)

Members:

Acibar, Gwyneth L.

Co, Michael Alexander I.

Herreras, Benjie P.

Infante, Nikka C.

Mercado, Janelle Jean S.

Ong Sotto, Ma. Valerina C.

Orsal, Reymond P.

Pascion, Mark Laurence D.

BSCE-4B
I. INTRODUCTION

Bridges are structures that are designed to act as pathways or road connections
over uneven land area, body of water, and other roads without blocking the passage
below. They are essential for transportation as they allow passage for vehicles and
pedestrians to cross over obstacles that would have prevented travel from one place to
another. Because of this, importance is given over these structures that resulted to the
establishment of bridge engineering.

This branch of structural engineering involves the design, construction, and

maintenance of bridges. Aside from the theories and concepts that are needed to be
applied, external components such as environmental impact and economic constraints
are also considered in the formulation of a bridge construction plan. This resulted in the
construction of bridges with varying sizes and designs, which are divided into different
types according to their prominent characteristics.

II. DISCUSSION

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CRITERIA OF BRIDGES

Bridges can be categorized in multiple ways based on their classification objectives.

As bridge designs have advanced from basic beam structures to contemporary cable-
stayed and suspension bridges, the need for diverse classification has increased. Bridges
are typically classified according to their superstructure, which can be further categorized
according to the following characteristics:

• Materials of Construction
• Usage
• Structural Forms
• Span Type
• Span Length
• Load Path
• Deck
Bridge Classification by Materials of Construction

Bridges can be identified by the materials from which their superstructures are
built, namely, steel, concrete, timber, stone, aluminum, and advanced composite
materials. This is not suggested that only one kind of material is used exclusively to build
these bridges. Frequently, a combination of materials is used in bridge building. For
example, a bridge may have a reinforced concrete deck and steel main girders, which is
typically used in highway bridge superstructures. New materials such as advanced
composite materials have also been widely used in bridge construction.

Bridge Classification by Usage

According to utility, bridges can be classified into highway bridges, railway bridges,
pedestrian bridges, aqueduct bridges, airport runway bridges, combined bridges, etc.

• Highway bridges are designed for vehicle load, pedestrian load, and other loads.

Richmond-San Rafael Bridge

• A railway bridge is built mainly for carrying railroad traffic, either cargo or
passenger. A road-rail bridge designed as double deck carries both road and rail
traffic.

Kosi Mega Rail Bridge

• A pedestrian bridge (footbridge) is designed for pedestrians, cyclists, or animal

traffic, rather than vehicular traffic. In many cases, footbridges are both beautiful
works of art and functional as a bridge.

EDSA-Buendia Footbridge
• An airport runway bridge is built as runways for airplanes, and its width mainly
depends on the wingspan of the aircraft, which varies widely.

Taxiway Bridge in Tampa International Airport

• An aqueduct bridge is a bridge constructed for carrying water, like a viaduct that
connects points of same height.

Fujigawa Aqueduct
 • A combined bridge is designed for two or more functions. In addition, temporary
bridges that are used in natural disasters (also named as emergency bridges) and
in the war (military bridges) that can be easily assembled and then taken apart in
the war are also used in practice. On the contrary, the bridges used for long periods
are defined as permanent bridges.

Military Bridges

Bridge Classification by Structural Form

The structural form is the crucial factor that affects the whole service life of the bridge,
including design, construction, repair, and maintenance. Bridges can be classified into
beam bridges, rigid-frame bridges, truss bridges, arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges, and
suspension bridges.

• Beam bridges (Girder Bridges) are the most common, and simplest structural
forms supported between abutments or piers. The weight of the beam and other
external load need to be resisted by the beam itself, and the internal forces include
the bending moment and shear force. When subjected to a positive bending
moment, the top fibers of a beam are in compression while the bottom fibers are
in tension. This bridge is helpful for short span. When long spans are required to
be covered, beam bridges are extremely expensive due to piers required for
 holding the long beams, also sagging tendency is increased when the bridge span
or load is increased.

Manchac Swamp Bridge

• A Rigid-Frame Bridge (Rahmen Bridge) consists of superstructure supported on

vertical or slanted legs or columns, in which they are connected all the way
through, from the deck to the foundation acting as a continuous unit. Moments at
the center of the deck of a rigid-frame bridge are smaller than the corresponding
moments in a simply supported deck. Therefore, a much shallower cross section
at mid-span can be used. There are three types of Rigid-Frame Bridge, namely:

1. Single Span
2.V Shaped

3. Batter-Post
• A Truss bridge is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units, and
a truss bridge is a load-bearing superstructure composed of truss. The truss
members like chords, verticals, and diagonals act only in either tension or
compression. Short-span truss bridges are built as simply supported, while the
large span truss bridges are generally built as continuous truss bridges or
cantilever truss bridges.

Ayala Bridge

• An Arch bridge is a bridge shaped as an upward convex curved arch to sustain

the vertical loads. A simple arch bridge works by transferring its weight and other
loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the strong abutments at either
side.

Tyne Bridge
• A Cable-Stayed bridge is a structure with several points in each span between
the towers supported upward in a slanting direction with inclined cables and
consists of main tower(s), cable-stays, and main girders. The cable-stayed bridges
are also highly efficient in use of materials due to their structural members mainly
works in either tension or compression.

Big Obukhov Bridge

• A Suspension bridge is a continuous girder suspended by suspension cables,

which pass through the main towers with the aid of a special structure known as a
saddle, and end on big anchorages that hold them. In a suspension bridge, main
forces are tension in the cables and compression in the towers. The deck (usually
a truss or a box girder) is connected to the suspension cables by vertical suspender
cables or rods, called hangers, which are also in tension.

Golden Gate Bridge

Bridge Classification by Span Type

• A Culvert bridge is a type of structure used in bridge engineering for relatively

short spans, typically less than 6 meters (20 feet). It is commonly used to allow
water, such as a stream or drainage, to pass underneath roads, railways, or
pathways. Culverts serve both as a hydraulic structure to manage water flow and
as a load-bearing structure to support the weight of traffic above.

• A Minor bridge is a type of bridge that spans between 6 meters and 60 meters. It
is used to cross small to medium-sized obstacles, such as streams, small rivers,
or roads, where a longer span than a culvert is necessary but the crossing does
not require the scale of a major bridge. Minor bridges are common in rural or less-
developed areas, and they typically serve lower traffic volumes compared to larger,
more complex bridges.
• A Major bridge is a bridge with a span length of more than 60 meters. These
bridges are designed to cross large obstacles such as wide rivers, deep valleys,
or urban roadways with high traffic volumes. Major bridges are often complex in
design and require advanced engineering techniques to ensure they can support
significant loads over long spans while maintaining structural integrity and safety.

• A Long Span bridge is a type of bridge designed to cover exceptionally large

distances, typically with spans greater than 120 meters. These bridges are often
used to cross wide rivers, deep valleys, or large bodies of water where
conventional or minor bridges would be impractical. Long span bridges are often
designed to withstand environmental forces such as wind, earthquakes, and water
currents, and they typically become landmarks due to their scale and architectural
complexity.
Bridge Classification by Span Length

• A Simply Supported bridge is a type of bridge where the bridge deck (the
horizontal structure) is supported at both ends by abutments or piers, without any
intermediate supports in between. The deck acts like a simple beam, with the loads
on the bridge being transferred directly to the supports.

• A Continuous bridge is a type of bridge where the deck spans over multiple
supports without any breaks, providing a continuous structural element. Unlike a
simply supported bridge, where each span is independent, a continuous bridge
has spans that are interconnected, allowing the structure to distribute loads more
efficiently across multiple supports. This design reduces bending moments at the
supports, resulting in lower stresses in the deck and increased stability.
 • A cantilever bridge is a type of bridge in which the structure extends horizontally
and is supported only at one end. Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—
structures that project horizontally into space, supported on only one end. The
bridge is typically constructed with two cantilever arms that extend from opposite
sides of a support, meeting in the middle where they connect or are spanned by a
smaller, central suspended span.

Loads on Bridges

• Dead load - Gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions act
permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural
System itself and of all other material and equipment permanently attached to the
structural system. In the bridge design, the dead load denotes the constant load in
a bridge due to the weight of the members, the supported structure, and permanent
attachments or accessories.
• Live Load - Live load in bridge design generally refers to loads due to moving
vehicles that are dynamic, or the loads that change their positions with respect to
time. This is unlike building structure, where live loads are the occupancy loads,
which are considered as static load.
• Wind Load - Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around structures. In
the bridge design, the wind load is defined as the wind pressure on the bridge.
Wind load magnitudes vary with the peak wind speed, type of terrain etc.
 • Seismic Load - Seismic loading is one of the basic concepts of earthquake
engineering which means application of a seismic oscillation to a structure. It
happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground or with adjacent
structures. Seismic loading depends, primarily on seismic hazard, Geotechnical
parameters of the site, and structure’s natural frequency etc.
• Flood Load - Flood load typically refers to the forces and stresses that a bridge
must endure during a flood event. It includes the effects of water pressure,
buoyancy, and hydrodynamic forces that can impact a building or infrastructure
during a flood event. This load is crucial for the structural design of bridges in flood-
prone areas.

Classification of Decks on Bridges

The deck is that component of a bridge to which the live load is directly apply. It is
the surface upon which the traversing traffic drives and provide a smooth and safe riding
surface for the traffic utilizing the bridge. The primary function of a bridge deck is to
support the vehicular vertical loads and distribute these loads to the steel superstructure.
The deck is typically continuous along the length, and across the width, of the span of the
bridge.
• Timber deck is normally referred to as decking or timber flooring, and the term is
limited to the roadway portion which receives vehicular roads. It is less common
for large or modern bridges but can be economical and aesthetically pleasing for
smaller or pedestrian bridges. It requires more maintenance and is less suitable
for high-load or long-span applications.

• Concrete deck or Reinforced Concrete deck is made of concrete that is usually

reinforced with steel rebar or mesh to improve its performance and longevity.
Concrete deck can be constructed with cast-in-place or precast methods, and
typically Include mild steel reinforcement in the longitudinal and transverse
directions. Although not common to typical steel bridges, concrete decks can utilize
post-tensioning steel in addition to the mild steel reinforcement in an effort to
provide additional strength and durability.
 • Steel deck is a deck that is composed of solid steel plate or steel grids. Steel is
known for its strength-to-weight ratio, making it suitable for long spans and heavy
loads. While it can be more expensive initially, its durability and the ability to use
prefabricated sections can offset some costs.

1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOCATION, ALIGNMENT, SPAN, AND ELEVATION

OF BRIDGES

Engineers must consider a number of aspects while designing a bridge in order to

choose the best location, alignment, span, and height for the construction. The main basis
for the location of the construction of bridges is the geographic classification of an area.
Differences in ground depth or the presence of a body of water along a route will
necessitate the need for a bridge.

Bridge Location and Alignment

1. Geotechnical Conditions

• Soil Type and Stability - Assessing the soil's load-bearing capacity, composition,
and stability to support bridge foundations. The aggregate stability of the soil is
measure by conducting tests by gathering a soil sample and observing whether
slaking or dispersion occurs after it is added to water.
 • Groundwater Levels - Understanding the groundwater table and its seasonal
variations, since it describes the boundary between the water-saturated ground
and unsaturated ground nearing the ground surface, which can ultimately affect
foundation design.

2. Hydrological Factors

• Water Flow and Flood Risk - Analyzing River or stream flow patterns, flood history,
and potential for erosion to determine the best bridge elevation and design.
• Sediment Transport - Consider sediment movement which can affect the bridge's
stability and lifespan.

3. Environmental Considerations

• Ecological Impact - Evaluation of the potential effects on local wildlife, ecosystems,

and habitats, including endangered species.
• Permitting and Regulations - Understanding the environmental regulations that
may restrict construction activities.

Bridge Elevation

1. Geography and Topography:

• The elevation of the bridge must account for the surrounding terrain,
including the need to clear natural obstacles like rivers, valleys, or other
structures.

2. Navigation Requirements:

• For bridges over navigable waterways, the elevation must be sufficient to

allow ships or boats to pass underneath. The height clearance required
depends on the types of vessels using the waterway.

3. Flood Risk:

• The bridge’s elevation must account for potential flood levels to prevent
damage and ensure longevity. This is particularly important in areas prone
to flooding.
 4. Structural Design:

• The choice of bridge design (e.g., suspension vs. arch) affects the elevation.
For instance, suspension bridges may require taller supports or towers.

5. Climate and Weather Conditions:

• Extreme weather conditions, such as high winds or ice accumulation, can

influence the design elevation and the choice of materials.

Bridge Span

1. Type of Bridge:

• Beam Bridges: Generally suitable for shorter spans.

• Arch Bridges: Can handle medium to long spans effectively.

• Suspension Bridges: Ideal for very long spans.

• Cable-Stayed Bridges: Also suitable for medium to long spans.

2. Load Requirements:

• The weight of vehicles, pedestrians, and additional loads like snow or wind
can influence the required span.

3. Geographical and Environmental Conditions:

• Natural features like valleys, rivers, or other obstacles can dictate the
maximum span.

• Soil conditions and bedrock strength affect the foundation and therefore
the span.

4. Material Strength:

• The type of materials used (e.g., steel, concrete, composites) and their
strength can determine how far the bridge can span without supports.

5. Economic Considerations:

• Budget constraints may limit the span, as longer spans often require more
expensive materials and construction techniques.
1.3 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE

SUPERSTRUCTURE

Superstructure Purpose

The basic purpose of the superstructure is to carry loads from the deck across the
span and to the bridge supports. The superstructure is a component of the bridge which
supports the deck or riding surface of the bridge, as well as the loads applied to the deck.

Superstructure Function

The function of the superstructure is to transmit loads. Bridges are named for their
type of superstructure. Superstructures may be characterized with regard to their function
(i.e., how they transmit loads to the substructure). Loads may be transmitted through
tension, compression, bending, or a combination of these three.

There are three common materials used in the construction of bridge

superstructures:

• Timber
• Concrete
• Steel

Primary Elements

Most superstructures are made up of two basic elements:

• Floor System
• Main Supporting Elements
A. Floor system - Receives traffic loads from the deck and distributes them to
the main supporting elements.

B. Main supporting elements - Transfer all loads to the substructure units.

Secondary Elements

Secondary elements are elements which do not normally carry traffic loads directly.
Typical secondary elements are:

• Diaphragms

• Cross or X-bracing
 • Lateral bracing

• Sway-portal bracing

Superstructure Classification of Bridges

1. Beam Bridge

Beam bridges are the most common, inexpensive, and simplest structural
forms supported between abutments or piers. In its most basic form, a beam bridge
is just supported at each end by piers (or abutments), such as a log across a creek.
The weight of the beam and other external load need to be resisted by the beam
itself, and the internal forces include the bending moment and shear force. When
subjected a positive bending moment, the top fibers of a beam are in compression
(pushed together) while the bottom fibers are in tension (stretched). Therefore,
only materials that can work well for both tension and compression can be used to
build a beam bridge. Obviously, both plain concrete and stone are not good
materials for a beam because they are strong in compression, but weak in tension.
Sometimes, the beam bridges are also classified into slab bridges, beam bridges,
and girder bridges. As noted by Smith et al. (1989), the slab bridges refer to spans
without support below the deck, Beam Bridges represents bridges with only
longitudinal support below the deck and Girder Bridges refer to bridges with both
longitudinal and transverse structural members under the deck.

In the case of beam bridges, loads from the superstructure are transmitted
vertically to the substructure. Examples of beam bridges include:

• Slabs (concrete) - refer to spans without support below the deck

 • Beams (timber, concrete, or steel) - represents bridges with only
longitudinal support below the deck.

• Girders (concrete or steel) - refer to bridges with both longitudinal and

transverse structural members under the deck

2. Arch Bridge
In the case of arch bridges, the loads from the superstructure are
transmitted diagonally to the substructure. True arches are in pure compression.
Arch bridges can be constructed from timber, concrete, or steel. A simple arch
bridge works by transferring its weight and other loads partially into a horizontal
 thrust restrained by the strong abutments at either side. The arch rib needs to carry
bending moment, shear force, and axial force in real service conditions. A viaduct
(a long bridge) may be made from a series of arches although other more
economical structures are typically used today. For statically indeterminate arch
bridges, the internal forces will occur due to the temperature variation and
settlement of supports. For this reason, if the arch bridges are constructed in soft
soil foundations, the bridge deck is generally designed to sustain the horizontal
forces.

3. Cable-Stayed Bridge

In the case of cable-supported bridges, the superstructure loads are resisted

by cables which act in tension. The cable forces are then resisted by the
substructure anchorages and towers. Cable-supported bridges can be either
suspension or cable-stayed. A cable-stayed bridge is a structure with several
points in each span between the towers supported upward in a slanting direction
with inclined cables and consists of main tower(s), cable-stays, and main girders.
In comparison with the continuous girder bridges, the internal forces due to both
dead load and live load are much smaller in cable-stayed bridges. The cable-
stayed bridges are also highly efficient in use of materials due to their structural
members mainly works in either tension or compression (axial forces). Cable-
 stayed bridges have the second-longest spanning capacity (after suspension
bridges), and they are practically suitable for spans up to around 1000 m.

4. Truss Bridge

Truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units, and a

bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss. Truss bridges
are one of the oldest types of modern bridges Therefore, the truss members like
chords, verticals, and diagonals act only in either tension or compression. For the
design point of view, however, the pinned connection assumption is considered for
security concerns and also for simplifying the structural design and analyses.

According to this assumption, the truss members can be in tension,

compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads. Short-span truss
bridges are built as simply supported, while the large span truss bridges are
generally built as continuous truss bridges or cantilever truss bridges. For this
reason, other designs alternatives such as suspension bridge and cable-stayed
 bridge, etc. which needs relative high towers were repudiated. Although it can be
designed as cantilever like other truss bridges shown in

5. Rigid-Frame Bridges

A Rigid-Frame Bridge consists of superstructure supported on vertical or

columns, in which the superstructure and substructure are rigidly connected to act
as a unit and are economical for moderate medium-span lengths.

The rigid-frame bridges are superstructure-substructure integral structures with

the superstructure can be considered as a girder. The connections between
superstructure and substructure are rigid connections which transfer bending
moment, axial forces, and shear forces. A bridge design consisting of a rigid frame
can provide significant structural benefits but can also be difficult to design and
construct. Moments at the center of the deck of a rigidframe bridge are smaller
than the corresponding moments in a simply supported deck. Additional benefits
are that less space is required for the approaches and structural details for where
the deck bears on the abutments are not necessary. However, as a statically
indeterminate structure, the design and analysis is more complicated than that of
simply supported or continuous bridges.
6. Suspension Bridges
A typical suspension bridge is a continuous girder suspended by suspension
cables, which pass through the main towers with the aid of a special structure
known as a saddle, and end on big anchorages that hold them the essential
structural members and elements of typical, including tower, hanger, main girder,
and the anchorage. The main forces in a suspension bridge are tension in the
cables and compression in the towers. The deck, which is usually a truss or a box
girder, is connected to the suspension cables by vertical suspender cables or rods,
called hangers, which are also in tension. The weight is transferred by the cables
to the towers, which in turn transfer the weight to the anchorages on both ends of
the bridge, then finally to the ground. The use of suspension bridges makes longer
main spans achievable than with any other types of bridges, and they are practical
for spans up to around 2 km or even larger.
Movable Bridge

The purpose of a movable bridge is to provide the appropriate channel width

and under clearance for passing water vessels when fully opened. A moveable
bridge is a bridge that moves to allow passage usually for boats or barges. An
advantage of making bridges moveable is the lower construction cost due to the
absence of high piers and long approaches. Three types often used moveable
bridges are bascule bridges, swing bridges, and lift bridges.

Movable bridges can be classified into three general groups:

➢ Bascule

A bascule bridge is a kind of widely used moveable bridge whose main

girders can be lifted together with deck about the hinge located at the end of
the span. Depending on the bridge width, the bascule bridge can be designed
as either single or double leafed. Tower Bridge (built 1886–94) crosses the
River Thames in London is a combined suspension bridge and bascule.

➢ Swing Bridges

In swing bridges, the girders together with the deck can be swung
about the vertical support ring at the pier in the middle (or abutment at the
end), to allow the traffic to cross. Small swing bridges may be pivoted only at
one end, opening like a gate, but require substantial base structure to support
the pivot.

➢ Lift Bridges

In lift bridges, gantries are provided at the piers at either end of the
span. Both girder and the floor system are lifted up by a hydraulic
arrangement to the extent required for free passage of the ship. The Stillwater
Lift Bridge is a typical bridge of this type.However, in comparison with other
bridges, the moveable bridges are generally characterized as higher
inspection and maintenance costs, difficult to widen in the future, and poor
seismic performance
Culverts

A culvert is primarily a hydraulic structure, and its main purpose is to transport

water flow efficiently. Culverts are often viewed as small bridges, being constructed
entirely below and independent of the roadway surface. However, culverts do not have a
deck, superstructure, or substructure.
SUBSTRUCTURE

The substructure is the lower part of a bridge that includes crash barriers, piers,
pier caps, pedestals, bearings, etc.

Pier

Bridge Pier support the spans of the bridge and transfer the loads from
superstructure to the foundation. Piers should be strong enough to take the both vertical
and horizontal load. Its main function is to transfer the load from the bridge superstructure
foundation below it.

Pier Cap

Pier caps are flanged members of the substructure piers that host the girders via
the bearing pedestals. They usually host the bearing pedestals, seismic arrestors,
launcher sleeves, drain holes, etc. upon their arrangement.
Bearing Pedestal

The structural member responsible for hosting the bearing is a bearing pedestal.
Pedestals are rectangular members integrated as a part of the main pier cap at the top.
Their dimensions are dependent upon the dimensions of the bearings.

Bearing

Bearings are structural members capable of transferring loads from the deck to the
substructure. These displace stresses and load to the piers through the girders to allow
movement between parts of a bridge.

III. TEST YOURSELF

Seismic Arrestors

A seismic arrestor is characterized by its function to bear the impact of seismic

forces on a bridge structure and the direction of forces it must bear. Arrestors are
categorized as both transverse or as longitudinal arrestors in special conditions and both.

Vertical Bearing

Vertical bearings are bearings that are placed vertically as an interface between
the girder and the seismic arrestors to avoid rupture of concrete. In case of box girders,
it is placed in the end segment of the box girder viaduct.
Abutments

A sub-structure that primarily resists lateral forces on either sides of bridge and
serves as the support structure for the girders. The launch apron ends at the abutments.
It serves as a retaining wall for the backfill from the launch apron. These are the structural
link between the road and the bridge structure.

Wing Walls

The walls that flare out of the bridge diagonal or perpendicular to the main span of
the bridge are wing walls. They are categorized as backfill retaining structures. Their
purpose is to retain the earth fill at the approach embankment and direct the stream
through the piers downstream.
Crash Barriers

A Crash barrier is a structural strengthening at the bottom of urban piers. Vehicles

impact the piers in case of an accident, this will impart a sudden impact force on the
bottom of the pier. Crash barriers are aesthetically the increased thickness of the pier
section at this part with additional reinforcement.

III. TEST YOURSELF

1. This bridge is designed for vehicle load, pedestrian load, and other loads.

2. A type of bridge that spans between 6 to 60 meters.

3-4. Give 2 classification of bridge according to its usage

5-6. Give 2 classification according to structural form

7-9. What are the types of bridge decks according to the material used?

10-12. Give 3 parts of a substructure.

13-14. What are the factors that affect the location and alignment in environmental
considerations?

15. Its purpose is to carry loads from the deck across the span and to the bridge supports.
IV. REFERENCES

1. *Highway Engineering” by S.K. Khanna and C.E.G. Justo *Guidelines from the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

2. “Bridge Engineering Handbook” by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan

3. *"Bridge Design and Construction" by Michel Ghosn

4. “Bridge Engineering” by Jim J. Zhao and Demetrios E. Tonias

5. *AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

6. *Bridge Engineering by Jim J. Zhao and Demetrios E. Tonias *American Association of

State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications

7. https://www.quora.com/What-factors-should-we-consider-for-a-bridge-site-selection

8. https://www.thebridgehawk.com/post/components-of-a-bridge