1

THE VERNIER CALIPERS

Aim
Find the volume of the given cylinder using Vernier Calipers.
Principle
value of 1 m.s.d
Least count of the vernier =
No. of divisions on the vernier scale
Length to be measured = Main scale reading + (vernier scale reading x least count)
Volume of a cylinder = r2h where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder
Observations and Calculations
Value of one main scale division = .............mm
No. of divisions on the vernier =
value of 1 m.s.d
Least count = No.of divisions on the vernier scale
= ............mm = .............cm

Dimensions Trial MSR VSR Total Reading Mean

No cm div MSR+ (VSR x L.C ) cm (cm)

Diameter

Length

Mean diameter of the cylinder = ............m

Radius of the cylinder (r) = ............m
Mean length of the cylinder (h) = ............m
Volume of the cylinder = r2 h = ...........m3
Result

Volume of the cylinder = .............m3

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 2

THE VERNIER CALIPERS

Aim
Determine internal volume of the given calorimeter.You are supplied with Vernier calipers.
Principle
value of 1 m.s.d
Least count of the vernier =
No. of divisions on the vernier scale
Length to be measured = Main scale reading + (vernier scale reading x least count)
Volume of the calorimeter = r2h where r is the internal radius and h is the depth of the calorimeter.
Observations and Calculations
Value of one main scale division = .............mm
No. of divisions on the vernier =
value of 1 m.s.d
Least count = No.of divisions on the vernier scale
= ............mm = .............cm

Dimensions Trial MSR VSR Total Reading Mean

No cm div MSR+ (VSR x L.C ) cm (cm)

Diameter

Depth

Mean diameter of the calorimeter =.....................m

Radius of the calorimeter (r) =......................m
Depth of the calorimeter (h) =......................m
Volume of the calorimeter = r2h
=.....................m3
Result

Volume of the calorimeter = ...........m3

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 3

THE VERNIER CALIPERS

Aim
Determine the diameter and hence the volume of the given sphere with the help of Vernier calipers.
Principle
value of 1 m.s.d
Least count of the vernier =
No. of divisions on the vernier scale
Length to be measured = Main scale reading + (vernier scale reading x least count)
Volume of a sphere = 4 r3 ,where r is the radius of the sphere
3

Observations and Calculations

Value of one main scale division = .............mm
No. of divisions on the vernier =
value of 1 m.s.d
Least count = No.of divisions on the vernier scale
= ............mm = .............cm

Trial No MSR VSR Total Reading Mean

(cm) (div) MSR+ (VSR x L.C) (cm) (cm)

Mean diameter of the sphere = .........m

Radius of the sphere (r) = ..........m

Volume of the sphere = 4 r3

3
= .........m3
Result

Diameter of the sphere = -------------- m

Volume of the sphere = ...............m3

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 4

THE SCREW GAUGE

Aim
Determine the diameter of the given wire using Screw gauge and hence find the volume.
Metre scale is provided.
Principle
Pitch
Least count =
No. of divisions on the head scale
Pitch is the distance moved by the tip of the screw when it undergoes one complete rotation.
Total reading = Pitch scale reading + (corrected head scale reading x least count )
Head scale reading is corrected by applying zero correction
Volume of a wire = r2l , where r is the radius and l is the length of the wire.
Observations and Calculations
Distance moved for 5 rotations = mm
Distance moved for 5 rotations
Pitch =
5
Pitch
Least count =
No .of divisions on the head scale
zero error = ..................div
zero correction = .................div

Trial No PSR HSR Corrected Total Reading Mean diameter

(a) mm div HSR (b) a + ( b x LC) mm mm

Mean diameter of the wire = ....................m

Radius of the wire = ....................m

Length of the wire = --------------- cm

= ---------------- m
Volume of the wire = r2l
= ........................m3
Result
Diameter of the wire = ------------ m

Volume of the wire = ........................m3

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 5

THE SCREW GAUGE

Aim
Using Screw gauge, determine the thickness of the glass plate and find its volume .Graph paper supplied.
Principle
Pitch
Least count =
No. of divisions on the head scale
Pitch is the distance moved by the tip of the screw when it undergoes one complete rotation.
Total reading = Pitch scale reading + (corrected head scale reading x least count )
Head scale reading is corrected by applying zero correction
Volume of the glass plate = Area x thickness

=Ax t
Observations and Calculations
Distance moved for 5 rotations = mm
Distance moved for 5 rotations
Pitch =
5
Pitch
Least count =
No .of divisions on the head scale
zero error = ..................div
zero correction = .................div
Trial No PSR HSR Corrected Total Reading Mean thickness
(a) mm div HSR (b) a + ( b x LC) mm mm

Thickness of glass plate , t = ......m

Area of glass plate, A = ..... m2
Volume of the glass plate = A x t
= -----------------
= -------------- m3
Result

Thickness of glass plate = .............m

Volume of the glass plate =........................m3

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 6

THE SCREW GAUGE

Aim
Determine the volume of the given lead shot using Screw gauge.
Principle
Pitch
Least count =
No. of divisions on the head scale
Pitch is the distance moved by the tip of the screw when it undergoes one complete rotation.
Total reading = Pitch scale reading + (corrected head scale reading x least count )
Head scale reading is corrected by applying zero correction

Volume of the sphere = 4r3, where r is the radius of the sphere.

3
Observations and Calculations
Distance moved for 5 rotations = mm
Distance moved for 5 rotations
Pitch =
5
Pitch
Least count =
No .of divisions on the head scale
zero error = ..................div
zero correction = .................div
Trial No PSR HSR Corrected Total Reading Mean diameter
(a) mm div HSR (b) a + ( b x LC) mm mm

Mean diameter of the sphere = ....................m

Radius of the sphere (r) = ....................m

Volume of the sphere = 4 r3 = ..................m3

3
Result

Volume of the sphere =........................m3

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 7

SIMPLE PENDULUM
Aim :
Determine the period of oscillation for lengths 65, 75, 85 and 95 cm using Simple pendulum.Plot L-T2 graph,
find acceleration due to gravity using graph
Principle:
When the bob is allowed to oscillate, it executes simple harmonic motion.For small
oscillations, the period of oscillation.
T = 2 l /g
where ‘l’ is the length of the pendulum and ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.
l
From the above relation g = 42
T2

T2
l
C AB
g = 42
AC

B A

l
Observations and Calculations
Radius of the bob r = ......... cm
Trial Distance between length of Time for 20 peroid of
No the point of suspension the pendulum oscillations (s) oscillation
and the top of the bob l cm T = 20
t T2
( l - r ) cm 1
mean (s2)
2 (t) (s)
65

75

85

95

l T2 graph
l AB
=
T2 AC
 g = 42 AB =
AC
Result Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
Acceleration due to gravity at the place = .............m/s2
 8

SIMPLE PENDULUM
Aim :
Using Simple pendulum determine the period of oscillation for 65, 75, 85 and 95 cm.Find acceleration due to
gravity by calculation.
Principle:
When the bob is allowed to oscillate, it executes simple harmonic motion.For small
oscillations, the period of oscillation.
T = 2 l /g
where ‘l’ is the length of the pendulum and ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.
l
From the above relation g = 42
T2

Observations and Calculations

Radius of the bob r = .........cm

Trial Distance between length of Time for 20 peroid of

No the point of suspension the pendulum oscillations (s) oscillation l
and the top of the bob l cm T = 20
t T2
T2
( l - r ) cm mean (s )
2
1 2 (s) cm/s2
(t)
65

75

85

95

Mean = ............cm/s2
=............m/s2
l
g = 42
T2
= m/s2
Result Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
Acceleration due to gravity at the place = ............. m/s2
 9

SPRING CONSTANT: Load -extension method

Aim
Draw the load-extension graph of a helical spring for at least three different loads and determine the spring
constant from the graph.
Principle
According to Hooke’s law, within the elastic limit ratio of load to extension of a spring is a constant.
ie load/extension = K, the spring constant
If ‘l ’ is the extension produced by a mass ‘m’ , then
mg
K=
l
Y


From the graph
Extension

C AB
Spring constant, K = x 9.8
BC
A B
o load  X

Observations and Calculations

Trial No Mass suspended Reading of the pointer on Extension

g loading unloading Mean l
cm
1 mo xo =

2 mo + x1 = x1 _ xo =
3 mo + x2 = x2 _ xo =
4 mo + x3 = x3 _ xo =

From the graph

AB
Spring constant, K = x 9.8
BC
= --------------- N/m

Result
Spring constant of the given spring = ............ N/m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 10

SPRING CONSTANT: Load -extension method

Aim
Tabulate load-extension for a helical spring for at least three different loads and find spring constant
by calculation.
Principle
According to Hooke’s law, within the elastic limit ratio of load to extension of a spring is a constant.
ie load/extension = K, the spring constant
If ‘l ’ is the extension produced by a mass ‘m’ , then
mg
K=
l
Observations and Calculations

Trial No Mass suspended Reading of the pointer on Extension mg

K=
g loading unloading Mean l l
cm N/m
1 mo xo =

2 mo + x1 = x1 _ xo =
3 mo + x2 = x2 _ xo =
4 mo + x3 = x3 _ xo =

Mean K =.............N/m
Result
Spring constant of the given spring = ............ N/m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 11
MOMENT BAR
Aim
Using principle of moments determine the mass of the given body.
Principle

Q P

?
W m
Load x load arm = Effort x effort arm
PC  m = QC  W
m = QC  W
PC
Observations and Calculations

Trial W QC PC Wx QC
m=
No g (g) PC
cm cm

Mean m = ........g
= ........kg
Result
Mass of the given body = ...............Kg

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 12

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF VECTORS

Aim
Find the mass of the given body using parallelogram law of apparatus.
Principle
When the point O is in equilibrium (refer fig.) the resultant of P and Q balances R. By parallelogram law the
diagonal OD x scale represents the resultant of P and Q.
Therefore R= OD x scale
The resultant of P and Q can also be calculated using the formula,
R= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos
D

A
B

O
P Q


O
R

Observations and Calculations

Scale 1 cm = .............. gwt

Trial P Q OD Angle Weight of the body (gwt)

No gwt gwt cm AOB =  OD x scale P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos  Mean

Mean weight of the body w = ......... gwt

= ......... Kgwt
Result  Mass of the body = .......... Kg

Mass of the given body = .................. Kg.

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 13

RESONANCE COLUMN-Determination of velocity of sound in air

Aim
Using resonance column apparatus, measure the resonating lengths for at least three tuning forks.
Hence find the velocity of sound at room temperature.
Principle
If the first and second resonating lengths for a tuning fork of frequency ‘n’ is l1 and l2 ,
the velocity of sound at room temperature is given by Vt = 2n ( l2 ---l1)

A A

N
l1 l2
A

N N

Observations and Calculations

Trial Frequency First resonance length Second resonance length Velocity of

No of tuning cm cm sound
fork n Hz 1 2 Mean l1 1 2 Mean l2 Vt = 2n(l2 -- l1)
cm / s

Mean Vt = ...... cms--1

Velocity of sound in air at room temp Vt = ...... m/s

Result
Velocity of sound in air at room temp. = .......... m/s
Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 14

RESONANCE COLUMN-Comparison of frequencies

Aim
Compare the frequencies of two tuning forks using resonance column apparatus.
Principle
If the first and second resonating lengths for a tuning fork of frequency ‘n’ is l1 and l2
A A

N
l1 l2
A
N N

n1 ( l2I --- l1I )

Ratio of frequencies = =
n2 ( l2 --- l1)
Observations and Calculations

Frequency First resonance length Second resonance length

cm cm
1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean

l1 = l11 =
n1

n2 l2 =
l21 =

n1 ( l21 --- l11 )

Ratio of frequencies =
n2 ( l2 --- l1)

= ---------------------

Result
Ratio of frequencies = --------------

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 15
SPRING CONSTANT OF A SPRING - Oscillation method
Aim
Using a helical spring, measure the period of oscillation with four different known masses and
determine spring constant by calculation.
Principle
The period of vertical oscillation of a spring when a mass M is suspended at its end is given by

T = 2 M
K

T2 = 42 M
K )
Spring constant, K = 42 M 2
T

Observations and calculations

Trial Mass suspended Time for 20 oscillations (s) Period T T2 M/T2 Mean M/T2
g 1 2 Mean S g/S 2 kg/s2
S2

Spring constant, K = 42 M2

T

= ...... N/m
Result
Spring constant of the given spring from calculation = ............ N/m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 16
OHM’S LAW
Aim
Determine the resistivity of the given wire by Ohm's law.Screw gauge is provided.
Principle
According to Ohm’s law, at constant temperature the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
ie, V/I = a constant known as the resistance of the conductor.
k
() Rh
+ V -

+ A -
X

If X is the resistance of a wire having length L and radius r, the resistivity of the material of the wire is given
by
 = r X
2

L
Observations and Calculations
To find the resistance
Trial No Current I Voltage V Resistance X = V
A volt I 

Mean X = 

To find the radius of the wire using screw gauge

Pitch
Least Count =
No. of divisions on H.S.
Zero correction = ± ...... div
Trial No PSR HSR Corrected Diameter of the wire
mm div HSR(div) PSR + (HSR x L.C) mm

Mean Diameter = ............mm

= ............m
Radius =...........m
Length of the resistance wire L =...........m
= r X
2
Resistivity 
L = ........ m
Binu Baby
Result
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
Resistivity of the material of the wire = ..........m
 17

OHM’S LAW
Aim
By drawing current-voltage graph, find the resistance of given wire by Ohm's law
Principle
According to Ohm’s law, at constant temperature the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
ie, V/I = a constant known as the resistance of the conductor.
k
() Rh
+ V -

+ A -
X

Y
C V I graph
...................

From graph
BC
V .................. X=
AB
A B

O X
I 
Observations and Calculations

Trial No. Current I Voltage V

A
volt

V I graph

From graph
BC
X=
AB
Result
Resistance of the given wire = ..........

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 18

OHM’S LAW
Aim
Find the resistance of the given wire using Ohm's law.Also find its conductance.
Principle
According to Ohm’s law, at constant temperature the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
ie, V/I = X, constant known as the resistance of the conductor.
k
() Rh
+ V -

+ A -
X

1
Conductance K =
X
Observations and Calculations
To find the resistance
Trial No Current I Voltage V Resistance X = V
A volt I 

Mean X = 

1
Conductance K =
X

= ------------- 
Result
Resistance of the given wire = ..........
Conductance of the given wire = ..........

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 19

CONCAVE MIRROR
Aim
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror by drawing u-v graph.
Principle
v

u
When a concave mirror forms a real image, it’s focal length,

f = uv
u+v
Where ‘u’ is the distance between the object and the mirror and ‘v’ is the distance between the real image and
the mirror

v
From the graph OA = OB = 2f
OA +OB
A  focal length, f =
4

O B u

Observations and Calculations

Trial No Distance between Distance between

mirror and object mirror and image
u cm v cm

uv graph
OA = ...........cm
OB = ...........cm

f = OA + OB
4
= ..........cm
= ..........m
Results Binu Baby
Focal length of the concave mirror from u-v graph = .......... m St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 20

CONCAVE MIRROR
Aim
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror using 1/u - 1/v graph
Principle v

When a concave mirror forms a real image, it’s focal length,

f = uv
u+v
Where ‘u’ is the distance between the object and the mirror and ‘v’ is the distance between the real image and
the mirror
>

1 2
cm-1 focal length, f =
v OA + OB

O A >
1
cm-1
u
Observations and Calculations

Trial No Distance between Distance between 1 1

u v
mirror and object mirror and image
u cm v cm cm-1 cm-1

1 1 graph
--
u v
OA = ........cm-1
OB =...........cm-1
2
f =
OA + OB
=.........cm =..........m
Results
Focal length of the concave mirror from 1/u - 1/v graph = .......... m
Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 21
CONCAVE MIRROR
Aim
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror using u - v method calculation.
Principle
v

When a concave mirror forms a real image, it’s focal length,

f = uv
u+v
Where ‘u’ is the distance between the object and the mirror and ‘v’ is the distance between the real image and
the mirror

Observations and Calculations

Trial No Distance between Distance between Focal length

mirror and object mirror and image uv
u cm v cm f = u+v

Mean f =........... cm =............ m

Results
Focal length of the concave mirror = .......... m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 22

CONCAVE MIRROR
Aim
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror using u - v method calculation.
Verify the result using normal reflection method OR distant object method
Principle
v

When a concave mirror forms a real image, it’s focal length,

f = uv
u+v
Where ‘u’ is the distance between the object and the mirror and ‘v’ is the distance between the real image
and the mirror

Normal incidence or reflection method

If the object is at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror, the image is formed at the same position. Then
the distance between the mirror and the object gives the radius of curvature (R) of the mirror.

focal length f = R
2
OR
Distant object method

v=f
F

when the object is at a very large distance from a concave mirror, the image is formed at the principal focus.
Then the distance between image and the mirror is the focal length.

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 23
Observations and Calculations

Trial No Distance between Distance between Focal length

mirror and object mirror and image uv
u cm v cm f = u+v

Mean f =........... cm =............ m

Distant object method

Trial No. Focal length in cm

Mean f = ..............cm =................m

OR
Normal incidence method
Trial No. Distance between Focal length
image/object and f = R cm
screen (R) cm 2

Mean f = ..........cm =............m

Results
Focal length of the concave mirror
1. by u-v method = .......... m
2. by normal reflection method OR distant object method = ------------ m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 24

CONVEX LENS
Aim
Find the focal length of convex lens using u - v method calculation.
Principle

u v

When a convex lens forms a real image, it’s focal length,

f = uv
u+v
Where ‘u’ is the distance between the object and the lensand ‘v’ is the distance between the real image
and the lens.
Observations and Calculations

Trial No Distance between Distance between Focal length

lens and object lensand image uv
u cm v cm f = u+v

Mean f =........... cm =............ m

Results
Focal length of the convex lens = .......... m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 25

CONVEX LENS
Aim
Find the focal length of convex lens by u-v graph.
Principle

u v

When a convex lens forms a real image, it’s focal length,

f = uv
u+v
Where ‘u’ is the distance between the object and the lens and ‘v’ is the distance between the real image and
the lens

v
From the graph OA = OB = 2f
OA +OB
A  focal length, f =
4

O B u
Observations and Calculations
Trial No Distance between Distance between
lens and object lens and image
u cm v cm

uv graph
OA = ...........cm
OB = ...........cm

f = OA + OB
4
= ..........cm
= ..........m
Results
Focal length of the convex lens from u-v graph = .......... m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 26

CONVEX LENS
Aim
Find the focal length of the given convex lens by drawing 1/u - 1/v graph
Principle

u v

When a convex lens forms a real image, it’s focal length,

f = uv
u+v
Where ‘u’ is the distance between the object and the lens and ‘v’ is the distance between the real image and
the lens.
>

1 2
cm-1 focal length, f =
v OA + OB

O A >
1
cm-1
u
Observations and Calculations

Trial No Distance between Distance between 1 1

u v
lens and object lensand image cm-1
u cm v cm cm-1

1 1 graph
--
u v
OA = ........cm-1
OB =...........cm-1
2
f =
OA + OB
=......... cm =.......... m
Results Binu Baby
Focal length of the convex lens from 1/u - 1/v graph = .......... m St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 27

CONCAVE LENS
Aim
Find the focal length of the given concave lens by keeping it in contact with a convex lens.
Principle
1. Lenses in contact

O I

u v

When a convex lens of focal length f1 is in contact with a concave lens of focal length f2, the reciprocal of the
effective focal length., 1 1 1
= +
F f1 f2
Ff1
 f2 =
f1 -- F
f1 and F are determined using the formula,
focal length = uv for real image, where‘u’ is the object distance and ‘v’ is the image distance.
u+v
Observations and Calculations
1. Lenses in contact

Lens used Trial Distance between Distance between Focal length Mean focal
uv
No lens and object lens and image length
u+v
u cm v cm cm cm

f1 =
convex lens
alone

combination
of convex
and concave
F=
lens

F f1
f2 =
f1 --- F

= ............... cm
=................... m
Result
Focal length of the concave lens by lenses in contact = ................. m
Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 28

CONVEX MIRROR
Aim
Find the focal length of convex mirror using a convex lens.
Principle
If the image formed by a convex lens placed infront of a convex mirror is at the centre of curvature of the
mirror , the rays are falling normally on the mirror. These rays therefore reflects back along the same path and
form an image at the position of the object. (Refer figure)
Then distance between the mirror and the image formed by the convex lens is the radius of curvature (R)
of the mirror
R
Focal length f =
2

0
I F I’
2f = R

Obsevations and calculations

Trial No: Distance between screen

and mirror R cm

Mean R = ......... cm
=......... m
R
 focal length f =
2
= ........m

Result
Focal length of the convex mirror = ........... m

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 29

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A SEMI CONDUCTOR DIODE

Aim
Draw the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode in forward bias.
Theory
When potential difference is applied across a diode, a negligible increase in current can be observed
upto the knee voltage and thereafter the current increases sharply with voltage.The ratio of the forward biase
voltage to the corresponding forward current is called the d.c resistance of the diode.
+ mA -
()

k +
Rh V
-

I
mA

v (volts)

Observations and Calculations

Voltmeter Ammeter
Trial No readings V (volt) readings I
(mA )

Result
The characteristic curve of a forward biased diode is drawn.

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 30

CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE

Aim
Draw the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode in reverse bias.
Theory
When the reverse voltage applied to a zener diode reaches the breakdown voltage, the reverse zener
current increases to a large value.But the voltage across the diode remains constant.

+ mA -
()

k +
Rh V
-

v (volts) O

I
mA

Observations and Calculations

Trial No Reverse voltage Reverse current

V (volt) I (mA )

Result
The characteristic curve of a reverse biased diode is drawn.

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 31
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER

Aim
Convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter and verify the same.Given the resistance and figure of
merit of the galvanometer.
Theory
A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a small resistance (shunt) in parallel, which
is given by Ig G
S=
I - Ig

Where Ig is the current for full scale deflection in the galvanometer, G is the resistance of the galvanometer
and I is the maximum current to be measured.

Rh
G -
+

-
A +
()
k
Observations and Calculations

Least count of ammeter = -------- mA

Number of divisions in galvanometer, n = ------ div

Range of ammeter I = -----mA

I
Current sensitivity of galvanometer =
n = -----------mA/div

Reading of current in Reading of current in the Error

Trial No the given ammeter constructed ammeter
mA mA mA

Result
1.The given galvanometer is converted into an ammeter to read upto ---- A
2.The reading of the constructed ammeter is checked with a given ammeter and the errors in the reading
are tabulated.

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 32

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM: i-d curve

Aim
Plot a graph showing the variation of angle of deviation 'd' with angle of incidence 'i' for a given prism.
From the graph, find the angle of minimum deviation.
Principle
The angle of deviation of the light ray passing through a glass prism decreases with increase of angle of
incidence, reaches a minimum value called ‘angle of minimum deviation’ and thereafter increases.
A

d
d
i R
Q
D
P S
i
B C

Observations and Calculations

Angle of the prism, A =................
Trial No Angle of incidence (i) Angle of deviation (d)

Result
1. The variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence is shown graphically.
2. Angle of minimum deviation =

Binu Baby
St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 33

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM: i-d curve

Aim
Draw the path of a ray of light through a prism for six different angle of incidence and find the refractive
index of the material of the prism.(Angle of prism = ------------------ )
Principle
The angle of deviation of the light ray passing through a glass prism decreases with increase of angle of
incidence, reaches a minimum value called ‘angle of minimum deviation’ and thereafter increases.
A

d
d
i R
Q
D

P S
i

B C
If ‘A’ is the angle of the prism and ‘D’ is the angle of minimum deviation, then refractive index of the material
of the prism,

n=
sin ( A+ D
2
Sin A
2
Observations and Calculations
Angle of the prism, A =................
Trial No Angle of incidence (i) Angle of deviation (d)

From the graph, angle of minimum deviation , D =

sin A+ D
2
Refractive index , n = Sin A
2
= ----------------
Result Binu Baby
Refractive index of the material of the prism = -------------- St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara
 34
LIQUID LENS - FOCAL LENGTH OF LIQUID LENS
Aim
Find the focal length of a given liquid lens.
Principle
When a convex lens of focal length f1 is contact with a concave lens of focal length f2, the reciprocal of the
effective focal length
1 1
F
= + 1
f 1 f 2

F f1
f2 =
f1 - F f

Observations and Calculations

Focal lengths of convex lens

Distance of the pointer

Trial no from the top surface of Average distance
from the bottom surface
the lens (cm) (cm)
of the lens (cm)

Focal length of the convex lens f1 = ------------ m

Focal lengths of the combination

Distance of the pointer

Trial no from the top surface of Average distance
from the bottom surface (cm)
the lens (cm) of the lens (cm)

Focal length of the combination F = ------------ m

F f1
Focal length of the liquid lens, f2 =
f1 - F
= -------------------- m
Result
Focal length of the convex lens = ------------ m Binu Baby
Focal length of the liquid lens = ------------- m St. Joseph’s HSS Pullurampara