Electromagnetic Induction

When electrons are in motion, they produce a magnetic field. The converse of this is also true
i.e. when a magnetic field embracing a conductor moves relative to the conductor, it produces
a flow of electrons in the conductor.

This phenomenon whereby an e.m.f. and hence current (i.e. flow of electrons) is induced in
any conductor which is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetic
induction.

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

First Law:
It states that whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that conductor.

Second Law:
It states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux-linkages.

Explanation:
Suppose a coil has 𝑁 turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of Φ1 webers to
the final value of Φ2 webers in time 𝑡 seconds.
Then we have,
Initial flux linkages = 𝑁Φ1
Final flux linkages = 𝑁Φ2

∴ induced e.m.f.
𝑁Φ2 − 𝑁Φ1 𝑊𝑏
𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑡 𝑠

Φ2 − Φ1
𝑒 = 𝑁 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑡

Page 1 of 14
Putting the above expression in its differential form, we get
𝑑
𝑒= (𝑁Φ) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑Φ
𝑒=𝑁 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Usually, a minus sign is given to signify the fact that the induced e.m.f. sets up current in such
a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing it
𝑑Φ
𝑒 = −𝑁 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Math

1. The field coils of a 6-pole d.c. generator each having 500 turns, are connected in
series. When the field is excited, there is a magnetic flux of 0.02 Wb/pole. If the field
circuit is opened in 0.02 second and residual magnetism is 0.002 Wb/pole, calculate
the average voltage which is induced across the field terminals. In which direction is
this voltage directed relative to the direction of the current.

Solution:
Here,
Total number of turns, 𝑁 = 6 × 500 = 3000
Total initial flux = 6 × 0.02 = 0.12 Wb
Total residual flux = 6 × 0.002 = 0.012 Wb
Change in flux, 𝑑Φ = 0.12 − 0.012 = 0.108 Wb
Time of opening the circuit, 𝑑𝑡 = 0.02 second

We know,
𝑑Φ
Induced e.m.f., 𝑒 = 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
0.108
= 3000 ×
0.02
= 16200 V

The direction of this induced e.m.f. is the same as the initial direction of the exciting
current.

Page 2 of 14
2. A coil of resistance 100 Ω is placed in a magnetic field of 1 mWb. The coil has 100
turns and a galvanometer of 400 Ω resistance is connected in series with it. Find the
average e.m.f. and the current if the coil is moved in 1/10th second from the given
field to a field of 0.2 mWb.
Solution:
Here,
𝑑Φ = 1 − 0.2 = 0.8 mWb = 0.8 × 10−3 Wb
𝑑𝑡 = 1/10 = 0.1 second
N = 100

We know,
𝑑Φ
Induced e.m.f., 𝑒 = 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
0.8×10−3
= 100 ×
0.1
= 0.8 V

Again,
Total circuit resistance, R = 100 + 400 = 500 Ω

0.8
∴ Current induced, I =
500
= 1.6 × 10−3 A
= 1.6 mA

Page 3 of 14
Lenz’s Law:

Electromagnetically induced current always flows in such direction that the action of the
magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the very cause which produces it.

Self-inductance:
It is found that whenever an effort is made to increase current (and hence flux) through it, it is
always opposed by the instantaneous production of counter e.m.f. of self-induction. Energy
required to overcome this opposition is supplied by the battery.
If, now an effort is made to decrease the current (and hence the flux), then again it is delayed
due to the production of self-induced e.m.f., this time in the opposite direction.

The property of the coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease or current of flux
through it, is known as self-inductance.
It is quantitatively measured in terms of coefficient of self-induction L.

Mutual Inductance:
Mutual inductance may, therefore, be defined as the ability of one coil (or circuit) to produce
an e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction when the current in the first coil changes.

This action being reciprocal, the second coil can also induce an e.m.f. in the first when current
in the second coil changes.
This ability of reciprocal induction is measured in terms of the coefficient of mutual induction
M.

Page 4 of 14
Transformer:
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.

Working Principle of a Transformer:

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can
raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are
electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in
Fig.1. The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked
with the other coil in which it produces mutually-induced e.m.f. (according to Faraday’s Laws
of Electromagnetic Induction 𝑒 = 𝑀𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑡). If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows
in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second
coil. The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the a.c. supply mains, is called primary
winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called secondary winding.

Figure-1: A Transformer

Page 5 of 14
Ideal Transformer:
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its windings have no ohmic resistance,
there is no magnetic leakage and hence which has no 𝐼 2 𝑅 and core losses. In other words, an
ideal transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core.

Figure-1

Consider an ideal transformer [Fig.1 (a)] whose secondary is open and whose primary is
connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage 𝑉1. This potential difference causes an alternating
current to flow in the primary. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output
(secondary being open) the primary draws the magnetising current 𝐼𝜇 only. The function of
this current is merely to magnetise the core, it is small in magnitude and lags 𝑉1 by 90°. This
alternating current 𝐼𝜇 produces an alternating flux 𝜙 which is, at all times, proportional to the
current (assuming permeability of the magnetic circuit to be constant) and, hence, is in phase
with it. This changing flux is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings.
Therefore, it produces self-induced e.m.f. in the primary. This self-induced e.m.f. 𝐸1 is, at every
instant, equal to and in opposition to 𝑉1. It is also known as counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f. of the
primary.
Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced e.m.f. 𝐸2 which is known as mutually
induced e.m.f. This e.m.f. is antiphase with 𝑉1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of
change of flux and the number of secondary turns.

Page 6 of 14
E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer:

Φ𝑚

Figure-1: Transformer Figure-2: Flux Vs Time

Let us consider
𝑁1 = No. of turns in primary
𝑁2 = No. of turns in secondary
Φ𝑚 = Maximum flux in core in webers
𝑓 = Frequency of a.c. input in Hz

As shown in Fig-2, flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Φ𝑚 in one quarter
of the cycle i.e. in 1/4 𝑓 second.

Φ𝑚
∴ Average rate of change of flux =
1
4𝑓
= 4 𝑓 Φ𝑚 Wb/s or volt

Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f. in volts,
∴ Average e. m. f./turn = 4 𝑓 Φ𝑚 volt

If flux Φ varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying
the average value with form factor
r. m. s. value
Form factor = = 1.11
average value

∴ r. m. s. value of e. m. f./turn = 1.11 × 4 𝑓 Φ𝑚 volt

= 4.44 𝑓 Φ𝑚 volt

Page 7 of 14
Now, r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding
= (induced e. m. f/turn) × No. of primary turns

𝐸1 = 4.44 𝑓 Φ𝑚 𝑁1 … … … … … … … (i)

Similarly, r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in secondary is,

𝐸2 = 4.44 𝑓 Φ𝑚 𝑁2 … … … … … … … (ii)

From equations (i) and (ii), we get

𝐸2 𝑁2
= … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐸1 𝑁1
In an ideal transformer on no-load, 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 and 𝑉2 = 𝐸2 where 𝑉2 is the terminal voltage. So
we can get,
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑉2
= = … … … … … (𝑖𝑣)
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑉1

Again, for an ideal transformer, input 𝑉𝐴 = output 𝑉𝐴. i.e.

𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2

𝑉2 𝐼1
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑉1 𝐼2
Hence,
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑉2 𝐼1
= = =
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑉1 𝐼2

Page 8 of 14
 Math

1. The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000-volts, 50-Hz single-phase

transformer is 1.2 Wb/𝑚2 . If the e.m.f. per turn is 8 volt, determine (𝑖) primary and
secondary turns (𝑖𝑖) area of the core.
Solution:
Here,
𝐸1 = 250 volts
𝐸2 = 3000 volts
𝑓 = 50 Hz
𝐵𝑚 = 1.2 Wb/𝑚2
𝑁1 =?
𝑁2 =?
A =?
We know,
(i) 𝐸1 = 𝑁1 × e.m.f. induced/turn
250
∴ 𝑁1 =
8
= 32
3000
𝑁2 =
8
= 375

(ii) 𝐸2 = 4.44 f 𝑁2 𝐵𝑚 𝐴
or, 3000 = 4.44 × 50 × 375 × 1.2 × A
or, A = 0.03 𝑚2

Page 9 of 14
2. A single-phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The net cross-
sectional area of the core is 60 𝑐𝑚2 . If the primary winding be connected to a 50-Hz
supply at 520 V, calculate (𝑖) the peak value of flux density in the core (𝑖𝑖) the voltage
induced in the secondary winding.
Solution:
Here,
𝑁1 = 400
𝑁2 = 1000
𝐸1 = 520 volts
𝑓 = 50 Hz
𝐴 = 60 𝑐𝑚2
= 60 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐵𝑚 =?
𝐸2 =?
(i) We know,
𝐸1 = 4.44 f 𝑁1 𝐵𝑚 𝐴
𝐸1
∴ 𝐵𝑚 =
4.44 𝑓 𝑁1 𝐴
520
=
4.44 ×50 ×400 × 60 ×10−4
= 0.976 Wb/𝑚2

(ii) We know,
𝐸2 𝑁2
=
𝐸1 𝑁1
𝐸1 𝑁2
∴ 𝐸2 =
𝑁1
520 ×1000
=
400
= 1300 V

Page 10 of 14
3. A single-phase transformer has 500 turns in the primary and 1200 turns in the
secondary. The cross-sectional area of the core is 80 sq. cm. If the primary winding is
connected to a 50 Hz supply at 500 V, calculate (𝑖) Peak flux-density, and (ii) Voltage
induced in the secondary.
Solution:
Here,
𝑁1 = 500
𝑁2 = 1200
𝐸1 = 500 volts
𝑓 = 50 Hz
𝐴 = 80 𝑐𝑚2
= 80 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐵𝑚 =?
𝐸2 =?
(i) We know,
𝐸1 = 4.44 f 𝑁1 𝐵𝑚 𝐴
𝐸1
∴ 𝐵𝑚 =
4.44 𝑓 𝑁1 𝐴
500
=
4.44 ×50 ×500 × 80 ×10−4
= 0.563 Wb/𝑚2

(ii) We know,
𝐸2 𝑁2
=
𝐸1 𝑁1
𝐸1 𝑁2
∴ 𝐸2 =
𝑁1
500 ×1200
=
500
= 1200 V

Page 11 of 14
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field:
When current through an inductive coil is gradually changed from zero to maximum value I,
then every change of it is opposed by the self-induced e.m.f. produced due to this change.
Energy is needed to overcome this opposition. This energy is stored in the magnetic field of
the coil and is, later on, recovered when that field collapses. The value of this stored energy
may be found in the following two ways:

(i) First Method.

Let, at any instant,
𝑖 = instantaneous value of current
𝑑𝑖
𝑒 = induced e.m.f. at that instant = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡

Then, work done in time 𝑑𝑡 in overcoming this opposition is

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑒𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
=𝐿 × 𝑖 × 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖

Total work done in establishing the maximum steady current of 𝐼 is

𝑊 𝐼
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖
0 0
𝐼
= 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖
0
𝐼
𝑖2
=𝐿 [ ]
2 0
𝐼2 0
=𝐿 [ − ]
2 2
𝐼2
=𝐿 [ −0]
2
1
= 𝐿𝐼 2
2
1 2
Or, 𝑊= 𝐿𝐼
2

This work is stored as the energy of the magnetic field.

1 2
∴ 𝐸= 𝐿𝐼 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2

Page 12 of 14
 (ii) Second Method

If current grows uniformly from zero value to its maximum steady value 𝐼, then average
current is
𝐼
2
If 𝐿 is the inductance of the circuit, then self-idcued e.m.f. is
𝐼
𝑒 = 𝐿
𝑡
where ‘t’ is the time for the current change from zero to 𝐼.
∴ Average power absorbed = induced e. m. f. × average current
𝐼 𝐼
=𝐿 ×
𝑡 2
1 𝐿𝐼 2
=
2 𝑡

Total energy absorbed = power × time

1 𝐿𝐼 2
= ×𝑡
2 𝑡
1
= 𝐿𝐼 2
2

∴ Energy Stored
1 2
𝐸= 𝐿𝐼
2

Page 13 of 14
1. The field winding of a d.c. electromagnet is wound with 960 turns and has resistance
of 50 Ω when the exciting voltages is 230 V, the magnetic flux linking the coil is
0.005 Wb. Calculate the self-inductance of the coil and the energy stored in the
magnetic field.
Solution:
Here,
V = 230 volt
R = 50 Ω
 = 

Φ =  Wb
L =?
E =?
We know,
230
Current through coil =
50

= 4.6 A
NΦ
Self-inductance, L =
𝐼
960 ×0.005
=
4.6

= 1.0435 𝐻
1
Energy stored, E = 𝐿𝐼 2
2
1
= 2 × 1.0435 × (4.6)2

= 11.04 J

Page 14 of 14