NASARAWA STATE UNIVERSITY,

KEFFI
FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
COURSE TITLE: DATA COMMUNICATION/NETWORK
COURSE CODE: CMP 316

Course Lecturer
Y. Kefas

1
 OUTLINE
At the end of this study, You Should be able to understand:

 Data Communication(Communication Model).

 Message

 Sender

 Receiver

 Transmission Medium

 Protocol

2
 OUTLINE

 Data Representation
 Text
 Images
 Audio
 Video

3
 OUTLINE
 Data Flow/Mode of Transmission
 Simplex
 Half Duplex
 Full Duplex
 Broadcast
 Multicast
 Networks
 Distributed Processing
 Network Criteria
 Network Structures
 Network Models
 Network Categories
 Network Interconnections

4
 OUTLINE
 Internet
 Internet History
 The Internet today
 Protocols and Standards
 Protocols
 Standards
 Standard Organizations

5
 OUTLINE
 Networking Models
 OSI Model.
 Internet Model(TCP/IP)
 Data and Signals

 Analog Signals
 Digital Signals

 Transmission Impairments
 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise
 Data Rate Limit
 Noiseless Channel
 Noisy Channel

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 OUTLINE
 Network Performance

 Bandwidth

 Throughput

 Latency (Delay)

 Jitter
Digital Transmission
 Line Coding
 Line Coding Schemes
 Block Coding

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 OUTLINE
 Analog Transmission
Transmission Media
 Guided
 Unguided
 Multiplexing
 IP ADRESSING
 Circuit Switching and Packet switch networks
 Error and Flow Control Mechanism
 Introduction to networking using Packet Tracer

8
1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The term telecommunication means
communication at a distance. The word data
refers to information presented in whatever form
is agreed upon by the parties creating and using
the data. Data communications are the exchange
of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Components
Data Representation
Data Flow

1.9
Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

1.10
 Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

1.Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.

2.Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).

3.Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data
(message).

4.Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can be
wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.

1.11
 Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

5. Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to
communicate data.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is
a necessity in data communications without which the communicating
entities are like two persons trying to talk to each other in a different
language without know the other language.

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 Data Representation

Text
Image
Sound
Video

1.13
 Data Representation

 Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce

information.
 There may be different forms in which data may be represented.
Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows:

1. Text
 Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as
upper case.

 It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :

ASCII, Unicode

1.14
 Data Representation
2. Numbers
 Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
 It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII,
Unicode
3. Images

 ―An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying. In

computers images are digitally stored.
 A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple
terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
 The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the
type of image (black n white or color) each pixel would require
different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.

1.15
 Data Representation
Images
 The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also
called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the value
of each pixel.
 Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color)
each pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1, so an
image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only
100 bits in memory to be stored.
 On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2
bits to represent every pixel value (00 - black, 01 – dark gray,
 10– light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image
would now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.
 Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc

1.16
 Data Representation
4.Audio
 Data can also be in the form of sound which
can be recorded and broadcasted. Example:
What we hear on the radio is a source of data
or information.
 Audio data is continuous, not discrete.

5.Video
 Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of
picture or movie

1.17
Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

1.18
1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Distributed Processing
Network Criteria
Physical Structures
Network Models
Categories of Networks
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

1.19
Distributed Processing

Most networks use distributed processing, in which a

task is divided among multiple computers. Instead of
one single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

1.20
 Network Criteria

 A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.

 The most important of these are performance, reliability, and
security.
Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways,
including transit time and response time.
 Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another.
 Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
 The performance of a network depends on a number of factors,
including the:
 Number of users
 Type of transmission medium
 Capabilities of the connected hardware, and
 Efficiency of the software.

1.21
Network Criteria Cont’d

Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:

 Throughput: the amount of data or raw material that is
processed over a given period
 Delay: Failure of data to be delivered at the expected time

Reliability
Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the
time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
 Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.

1.22
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

1.23
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

1.24
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

For physical link allowing communications in both

directions with n nodes, we have n(n 1) duplex- mode
links 2
1.25
 Advantages of Mesh a Topology

 Dedicated links guarantees that each

connection can carry its own data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems
 A mesh topology is robust. If one link
becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system
 There is the advantage of privacy or security
 Point-to-point links make fault identification
and fault isolation easy

1.26
 Disadvantages of Mesh a Topology

 Because every device must be connected to every other

device, installation and reconnection are difficult
 The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate.
 The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and
cable) can be prohibitively expensive, thus, it is
implemented in a limited fashion such as a backbone
connecting the main computers of a hybrid network
that can include several other topologies e.g.
regional offices in which each regional office needs
to be connected to every other regional office.
1.27
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

1.28
 Advantages of a Star Topology

A star topology is less expensive than a mesh

topology
 This factor also makes it easy to install and
reconfigure.
 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions,
moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
 It is robust. If one link fails, only that link is affected.
All other links remain active
 This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification
and fault isolation.
 As long as the hub is working, it can be used to
monitor link problems and bypass defective
links.
1.29
 Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Dependency of the whole topology on one single

point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh,
each node must be linked to a central hub. For
this reason, often more cabling is required in a
star than in some other topologies (such as ring
or bus).
 The star topology is used in local-area networks
(LANs), and High-speed LANs use a star
topology with a central hub.

1.30
Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

1.31
 Advantages of a Bus Topology

Easy of installation. Backbone cable can be

laid along the most efficient path, then
connected to the nodes by drop lines of
various lengths.
 In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh
or star topologies.
 In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the
backbone cable stretches through the entire
facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as
the nearest point on the backbone which is not
case in star topology
1.32
 Disadvantages of a Bus Topology

Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed

to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be
difficult to add new devices.
 Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and
spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable.
 Adding new devices may therefore require modification or
replacement of the backbone.
 A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even
between devices on the same side of the problem. The
damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both directions.
 Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design
of early local area networks. Ethernet LANs can use a bus
topology

1.33
Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

1.34
 Ring Topology

 In a ring topology, each device has a

dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
1.35
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

1.36
 Hybrid Topology

 A network can be hybrid.

 For example, we can have
a main star topology with
each branch connecting
several stations in a bus
topology as shown above.
1.37
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

1.38
Categories of Networks Cont’d
 There are two primary categories of Networks:
 Local-area networks and
 Wide-area networks.
 The category into which a network falls is
determined by its size.
 A LAN normally covers an area less than 2
miles;
A WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a
size in between are normally referred
to as metropolitan area networks and
span tens of miles.

1.39
 Categories of Networks: Local Area Network (LAN)

 LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in

a single office, building, or campus.
 Depending on the needs of an organization and the
type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as
two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it
can extend throughout a company and include audio
and video peripherals.
 Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
 LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared
between personal computers or workstations.
 The resources to be shared can include hardware
(e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application
program), or data.
1.40
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

1.41
 Categories of Networks: Wide Area Network (WAN)

 A WAN provides long-distance transmission of data,

image, audio and video information over large geographic
areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even
the whole world (switched WAN).
 A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect
the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that connects a
home computer to the Internet (point-to-point WAN).
 The switched WAN connects the end systems, which
usually comprise a router (internetworking connecting
device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.
 The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a
telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home
computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider
(lSP).
1.42
Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

1.43
 Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

 Today, it is very rare to see a

LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in
isolation; they are connected to
one another.
 When two or more networks are
connected, they become an
internetwork, or internet.
1.44
Network Models
 Computer networks are created by different
entities.
 Standards are needed so that these
heterogeneous networks can communicate
with one another.
The two best-known standards are the:
 OSI model(Physical, Datalink, Network,
Transport, Session, Presentation and
Application)
 The Internet model.

1.45
1-3 THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of
our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure
time. The Internet is a communication system that
has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topics discussed in this section:

A Brief History
The Internet Today (ISPs)

1.46
A Brief History
The Internet came in to being in the 1969
 In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in
research organizations were standalone devices
The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
in the Department of Defence (DoD) was interested in
finding a way to connect computers so that the
researchers they funded could share their findings,
thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of
effort.
In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery
(ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for
ARPANET, a small network of connected computers.
47
A Brief History Cont’d

The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily

from the same manufacturer) would be attached to a
specialized computer, called an interface message
processor (IMP).
 The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to one another.
 Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other
IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
 By 1969, ARPANET was a reality
 Four nodes, at the University of California at Los
Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa
Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and
the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to
form a network.
48
A Brief History Cont’d

 Software called the Network Control Protocol

(NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
 In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom
were part of the core ARPANET group, collaborated
on what they called the Internetting Project1.
 Cerf and Kahn's landmark (1973) paper outlined
the protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of
packets.
 This paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
included concepts such as encapsulation, the
datagram, and the functions of a gateway.

49
A Brief History Cont’d

Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to

split TCP into two protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
 Internetworking Protocol (IP).
 IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would
be responsible for higher-level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection.
 The internetworking protocol became known as
TCP/IP.

50
The Internet Today (ISPs)

 The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical

structure.
 It is made up of many wide- and local-area
networks joined by connecting devices and switching
stations.
 The Internet is continually changing.
 New networks are being added, existing networks
are adding addresses, and networks of defunct
companies are being removed.
 Today most end users who want Internet
connection use the services of Internet service
providers (lSPs).
1.51
The Internet Today (ISPs)

There are:
 International service providers
 National service providers
 Regional service providers and
 Local service providers.
 The Internet today is run by private
companies, not the government

1.52
The Internet Today (ISPs)

 International Internet Service Providers are

the international service providers that connect
nations together.
 National Internet Service Providers are
backbone networks created and maintained by
specialized companies.
 Regional Internet Service Providers are
smaller ISPs that are connected to one or
more national ISPs.
 Local Internet Service Providers provide
direct service to the end users.
1.53
Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

1.54
1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms:

protocols and standards. First, we define
protocol, which is synonymous with rule. Then we
discuss standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards

1.55
PROTOCOLS
 Protocol is synonymous with rule
For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a
protocol.
 An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving
information.
 The key elements of a protocol are:
 syntax
 semantics and
 timing.
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented
 Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing refers to two characteristics:
 when data should be sent and
1.56
 how fast they can be sent
STANDARDS

 Standards are agreed-upon rules

 Data communication standards fall into two categories:
 de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and
 de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
 De facto standards are standards that have not been
approved by an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use.
 De facto standards are often established originally by
manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new
product or technology.
 De jure standards are those standards that have been
legislated by an officially recognized body

1.57
Standards Organizations
 Standards are developed through the cooperation of:
 Standards creation committees
 Forums and
Government regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is active
in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific,
technological, and economic activity.
 International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT) was
devoted to research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone and data
systems in particular.
 International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T) which was formally CCIT is a
standard
1.58
for communication
Standards Organizations

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), despite its

name, it is a completely private, non-profit corporation not
affiliated with the U.S. federal government.
 However, all it’s activities are undertaken with the welfare
of the United States and its citizens occupying primary
importance
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is the
largest professional engineering society in the world.
 It oversees the development and adoption of
international standards for computing and communications.
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA) is Aligned with ANSI
 It is a non-profit organization devoted to the promotion of
electronics manufacturing concerns.
1.59
Forums

 Forums made up of representatives from

interested corporations.
 It works with universities and users to test,
evaluate, and standardize new technologies

1.60
Regulatory Agencies
 All communications technology is subject to regulation by
government agencies such
as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the
United States and National Communications Commission
(NCC) in Nigeria.
 The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public
interest by regulating:
 radio
 television and
 wire/cable communications.
 The FCC has authority over interstate and international
commerce as it relates to communications

1.61
Internet Standards
An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification
that is useful to and adhered to by those who work with the
Internet.
 There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains
Internet standard status.
 A specification begins as an Internet draft.
 An Internet draft is a working document (a work in
progress) with no official status and a 6-month lifetime.
 Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft
may be published as a Request for Comment (RFC).
 Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made
available to all interested parties.
 RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized
according to their requirement level.
1.62
Chapter 2

Network
Models
63
 OBJECTIVES
 Internet layering model
 Function of each Layers
 OSI Model

64
2.1 Layered Tasks

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier

Work must be done

Hierarchically

Services: Use services of the

layer immediately below it
65
Layer Task (Sending a Letter)

66
2.2 Internet Model

Peer-to-Peer Processes

Functions of Layers

Summary of Layers

67
Figure 2.2 Internet layers

 Five-layer Internet Model  TCP/IP protocol suite

 TCP/IP protocol suite developed b/4 the OSI model has four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application
 Designers distilled the process of transmitting data to its most
fundamental elements. They identified which networking
functions had related uses and collected those functions into
discrete groups that became the layers.
 Five-layer Internet Model Layer functions are distinct thus:

68
Peer-to-peer processes
 The Processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer
are called peer-to-peer processes.
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the
message it receives from the layer above it and passes the whole
package to the layer just below it.
 At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by
layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant for
it.
 Passing of the data and network information down through the
layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of the
receiving device is made possible by an interface between each
pair of adjacent layers.
 Each interface defines what information and services a layer must
provide for the layer above it. Thus, provide modularity.

69
Figure 2.3 Peer-to-peer processes

70
An exchange using the Internet model

71
• Physical, data link and network are network support layers.
• They deal with the physical aspects of moving data from
one device to another (such as electrical specifications,
physical connections, physical addressing, and transport
timing and reliability).
• Application layer: User support layer; interoperability among
unrelated software systems.
• Transport layer: Links the two subgroups and ensures that
what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the
upper layers can use.
• Each layer adds a header; Data link layer adds a header and
a trailer.
• Formatted data is converted into electromagnetic signal and
transported along a physical link. 72
 Figure 2.5 Physical Layer
 Deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
and transmission media.
 Defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 Representation of bits
 Data rate: Transmission rate – number of bits sent per second
 Synchronization of bits
 The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from
one node to the next.

73
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

 Transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link.

 Makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network
layer).
 Framing: divide the stream of bits from network layer into frames
 Physical addressing
 Flow control: Prevent overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control: Detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames; Prevent
duplication of frames; using trailer.
 Access control: Determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.
 The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to
next.

74
Figure 2.7 Node-to-node delivery

75
Example 1
In Figure 2.8 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link. At the data link level this frame
contains physical addresses in the header. These are the
only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains
other information needed at this level. The trailer usually
contains extra bits needed for error detection

76
Figure 2.8 Example 1

77
 Figure 2.9 Network layer

 Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet

possibly across multiple networks.
 Data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between
two systems on the same network.
 Network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.
 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is
usually no need for a network layer.

78
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from
the original source to the final destination.

Logical addressing: Physical addressing in data link layer handles

the addressing problem locally.

Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to

create an internetwork (network of networks) or a large network,
the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination.

79
Figure 2.10 Source-to-destination delivery

80
Example 2
In Figure 2.11 we want to send data from a node with
network address A and physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a network address P and
physical address 95, located on another LAN. Because
the two devices are located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses only; the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction. What we need here
are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical) addresses have this
characteristic.

81
Figure 2.11 Example 2

82
 Figure 2.12 Transport layer

 Process-to-Process delivery
 Network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
 Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order,
overseeing both error control and flow control at the process-
to-process level.

83
The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from
one process to another.

•Port addressing: indicating a process

•Segmentation and reassembly: divide into segments having

sequence number.

•Connection control: connection-oriented and connectionless

•Flow control: end to end rather than across a single link.

•Error control: End to end rather than across a single link.

Sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage,
loss, or duplication).

84
Figure 2.12 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

85
Example 3
Figure 2.14 shows an example of transport layer
communication. Data coming from the upper layers have
port addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving process).
Since the data size is larger than the network layer can
handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet
retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network
layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each
packet.

86
Figure 2.14 Example 3

87
 Figure 2.15 Application layer

 Enables the user, whether human or software, to access the

network.
 Provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, access to
WWW, and so on.

88
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
• Mail services
• File transfer and access
• Remote log-in
• Accessing the WWW

89
Contd …
 Application layer
 Network virtual terminal
 Logon to a remote host.

 File transfer, access, and management

 Access files in a remote host.

 Mail services
 Basis for email forwarding and storage.

 Directory services
 Distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

90
Figure 2.16 Summary of duties

91
2.3 OSI Model

A comparison
• Seven-layer model
• Never seriously implemented as a protocol
Stack
• Theoretical model designed to show how a
Protocol stack should be implemented
• Session & Presentation layer

92
Figure 2.17 OSI model

93
 Figure 2.17 OSI model: Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements

of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.
 The physical layer is also concerned with the
following:
•Physical characteristics of interfaces and
medium
•Representation of bits
•Data rate
•Synchronization of bits
•Line configuration
•Physical topology
•Transmission mode 94
 Figure 2.17 OSI model: Data Link Layer

 The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next
 Other responsibilities of the data link
layer include the following:
•Framing
•Physical addressing
•Flow control
•Error control
•Access control
95
 Figure 2.17 OSI model: Network Layer

 The network layer is responsible for

the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the
destination host.
 Other responsibilities of the
network layer include the
following:
•Logical addressing
•Routing
96
 Figure 2.17 OSI model: Transport

The transport layer is responsible for the

delivery of a message from one process to
another.
 Other responsibilities of the transport
layer include the following:
•Service-point addressing
•Segmentation and reassembly
•Connection control
•Flow control
•Error control

97
OSI Model

 Session Layer
 Dialog control: Allows two systems to enter into a
dialog, either half or full duplex.
 Terminal to mainframe is half duplex.
 Synchronization: Add check points (synchronization
points) into a stream of data.
 Presentation layer
 Translation: Interoperability between these different
encoding methods.
 Encryption: For privacy.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits contained in
the information; useful in video, audio, …

98
OSI Model: Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
 Specific services provided by the
application layer include the following:
 Network virtual terminal
 Mail services
 Directory services

99
Physical Layer

100
Services

101
 Chapters

Chapter 3 Signals
Chapter 4 Digital Transmission

102
Chapter 3

Signals

103
 To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals
 Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an
infinite number of values in a range; digital signals can have only a
limited number of values.

104
 In data communication, we commonly use periodic analog signals
and aperiodic digital signals.
 Periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time
frame, called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent
identical periods. The completion of one full pattern is called a
cycle.
 An aperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle
that repeats over time.

105
 Figure 3.2 A sine wave

 Analog signals can be simple or composite.

 A simple periodic analog signal (Sine wave) cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals. A composite analog signal
is composed of multiple sine waves.

 Peak amplitude of a signal represents the absolute value of

its highest intensity, proportional to the energy it carries.
 For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts

106
 Figure 3.4 Period and frequency

 Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to

complete one cycle.
 Frequency refers to the number of periods in one second.
 Frequency and period are inverses of each other.
 Frequency is normally expressed in hertz (Hz).

107
Table 3.1 Units of periods and frequencies

Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent

Seconds (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms) 10–3 s kilohertz (KHz) 103 Hz

Microseconds (µs) 10–6 s megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz

Nanoseconds (ns) 10–9 s gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz

Picoseconds (ps) 10–12 s terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

METRIC UNITS
108
Example 1
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds, and express
the corresponding frequency in kilohertz.
Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalent of 1 ms.We make
the following substitutions:
100 ms = 100  10-3 s = 100  10-3  106 ms = 105 ms

Now we use the inverse relationship to find the

frequency, changing hertz to kilohertz
100 ms = 100  10-3 s = 10-1 s
f = 1/10-1 Hz = 10  10-3 KHz = 10-2 KHz 109
 Figure 3.5 Relationships between different phases

 Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change in a short

span of time means high frequency. Change over a long span of time
means low frequency.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
 When a signal changes instantaneously, its period is zero; since frequency
is the inverse of period, the frequency is infinite.
 If a signal does not change at all, it never completes a cycle, so its
frequency is 0 Hz

110
Example 2
A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with respect
to time zero. What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that one complete cycle is 360 degrees.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
(1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2p /360 rad = 1.046 rad

111
Figure 3.6 Sine wave examples

112
 Figure 3.7 Time and frequency domains

 Time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect

to time. Phase and frequency are not explicitly measured on a
time-domain plot.
 Frequency-domain plot shows the relationship between amplitude
and frequency.
 An analog signal is best represented in the frequency domain.

113
 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications; we need to change one or more of its
characteristics to make it useful
 When we change one or more characteristics of a
single-frequency signal, it becomes a composite signal
made of many frequencies
 According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal
can be represented as a combination of simple sine
waves with different frequencies, phases, and
amplitudes

114
 Figure 3.13 Bandwidth

 The bandwidth is a property of a medium: It is the difference

between the highest and the lowest frequencies that the medium
can satisfactorily pass
 In this slide, we use the term bandwidth to refer to the property of a
medium or the width of a single spectrum

115
Example 3
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is the
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum(range of values), assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
B = fh  fl = 900  100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 (see Figure 13.4 )

116
Example 4
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency
is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum(range of values) if the signal contains all
integral frequencies of the same amplitude.
Solution
B = fh  f l
20 = 60  fl
fl = 60  20 = 40 Hz

117
Example 5
A signal has a spectrum(range of values) with frequencies
between 1000 and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A
medium can pass frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a
bandwidth of 1000 Hz). Can this signal faithfully pass
through this medium?

Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have
the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not
overlap. The medium can only pass the frequencies
between 3000 and 4000 Hz; the signal is totally lost.
118
 Wavelength and period

 While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium,

the wavelength depends on both the frequency and the medium.
 Wavelength is a property of any type of signal.
 Wavelength describes the transmission of light in an optical
fiber.
 The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one
period.
 Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation
speed (the speed of light) and the period of the signal.
 If we represent wavelength by A, propagation speed by c (speed
of light), and frequency by1, we get:

 Wavelength = propagation speed x period = propagation speed

 frequency

119
 Wavelength and period

 The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on

the medium and on the frequency of the signal
 E.g. In a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 x 108
ms.
 That speed is lower in air and even lower in cable.
 The wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (microns)
instead of meters.
 E.g., The wavelength of red light (frequency =4 x 1014) in air is

 ƛ = c = 3 x 108 = 0.75 * 10-6m = 0.75µ

f 4 x 1014

 In a coaxial or fiber-optic cable, the wavelength is shorter (0.5

µm) because the propagation speed in the cable is decreased.

120
Figure 3.16 A digital signal

 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero

voltage.
 Most digital signals are aperiodic, and thus period of
frequency is not appropriate.
 Bit interval (instead of period) is the time required to send
one single bit.
 Bit rate (instead of frequency) is the number of bit intervals
per second. It is the number of bits sent in 1sec, usually
expressed in bits per second (bps).

121
Example 6
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the
duration of each bit (bit interval)
Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s
= 0.000500 x 106 ms = 500 ms

122