COMPTER LITERACY-I

Semester -I
Computer Fundamental
UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1. WHAT IS COMPUTER?
 The word “computer” is comes from the word “TO COMPUTE” means to
calculate.
 A computer is normally considered to be a calculation device which can perform
the arithmetic operations very speedily.
 A computer may be defined as a device which operates upon the data.
 Data can be in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, size etc. And it comes in
various shapes & sizes depending upon the type of computer application.
 A computer can store, process & retrieve data as and when we desired.
 The fact that computer process data is so fundamental that many people have
started calling as “Data Processor”.
 A computer first it gets the Data, does Process on it and then produces
Information.

DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

 DEFINATION OF COMPUTER
o A computer is an electronic device which takes input from the user,
processes it and gives the output as per user’s requirement.
o So the main tasks of performed by the computer are:
 Input
 Process
 Output
2. WRITE DOWN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Some important characteristics of the computer are as follow:
 Automatic:
o Computers are automatic machines because it works by itself without
human intervention.
o Once it started on a job they carry on until the job is finished.
o Computer cannot start themselves.
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 o They can works from the instructions which are stored inside the system
in the form of programs which specify how a particular job is to be done.
 Accuracy:
o The accuracy of a computer is very high.
o The degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design.
o Errors can occur by the computer. But these are due to human weakness,
due to incorrect data, but not due to the technological weakness.
 Speed:
o Computer is a very fact device. It can perform the amount of work in few
seconds for which a human can take an entire year.
o While talking about computer speed we do not talk in terms of seconds
and milliseconds but in microseconds.
o A powerful computer is capable of performing several billion (109) simple
arithmetic operations per second.
 Diligence:
o Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness & lack
of concentration.
o It can continuously work for hours without creating any error & without
grumbling.
o If you give ten million calculations to performed, it will perform with
exactly the same accuracy & speed as the first one.
 Versatility:
o It is one of the most wonderful features about the computer.
o One moment it is preparing the results of a particular examination, the
next moment it is busy with preparing electricity bills and in between it
may be helping an office secretary to trace an important letter in
seconds.
 Power of remembering:
o Computer can store and recall any amount of data because of its high
storage capacity of its storage devices.
o Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by the user
and can be recalled as and when required.
o Even after several years, if the information recalled, it will be as accurate
as on the day when it was filled to the computers.
 No I.Q.
o A computer is not a magical device; it processes no intelligence of its own.
o Its I.Q. is zero.
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 o It has to be told what to do & in what sequence.
o It cannot take its own decision.

 No Fallings:
o A Computer has no feelings because they are machines.
o Based on our feelings, task, knowledge and experience we often make
certain judgments in our day today life.
o But Computer goes exactly the way which we have given the instructions.
3. EXPLAIN THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE OF
COMPUTER.
 The computer Data Processing is any process that a computer program does to
enter data & summarise, analyse or convert data into useable information.
 The process may be automated & run on a computer.
 It involves recording, analysing, storing, summarizing & storing data.
 Because data are most useful when it is well presented & informative. The Data
Processing Cycle:
 Data Processing cycle described all activities which are common to all data
processing systems from manual to electronic systems.
 These activities can be grouped in four functional categories, viz., data input,
data processing, data output and storage, constituting what is known as a data
processing cycle.
 The main aim of data processing cycle is to convert the data into meaningful
information.
 Data processing system are often referred to as Information System.
 The Information System typically take raw Data as Input to produce Information
as Output.

INPUT OUTPUT
DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

STORAGE

 The data processing cycle contains main four functions:

o Data input
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 o Data process
o Data storage
o Data output
 DATA INPUT
o The term input refers to the activities required to record data.
o It’s a process to entered data in to computer system.
o So before we input any data, it is necessary to check or verify the data
context.
 DATA PROCESSING
o The term processing includes the activities like classifying, storing,
calculating, comparing or summarizing the data.
o The processing means to use techniques to convert the data into
meaningful information.
 DATA OUTPUT
o It’s a communication function which transmits the information to the
outside world.
o After completed the process the data are converted into the meaningful
in
o Sometimes the output also includes the decoding activity which converts
the electronically generated information into human readable form.
 DATA STORAGE
o It involves the filling of data & information for future use.
4. EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY
DATA PROCESSED
The computers are divided mainly three types on the based on data processed:
1. Analog computers
2. Digital computers
3. Hybrid computers Analog computers:
 In Analog Computers, data is represented as continuously varying voltage and
operate essentially by measuring rather counting.
 As the data is continuously variable, the results obtained are estimated and not
exactly repeatable.
 It can able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously and also capable to work
effectively with the irrational number. E.g. 1/8 = 0.125 and 1/6=0.1666

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  Voltage, temperature and pressure are measured using analog devices like
voltmeters, thermometers and barometers.
Digital Computers
 The digit computer is a machine based on digital technology which represents
information by numerical digit.
 In Digital Computers data is represented as discrete units of electrical pulses.
The data is measured in quantities represented as either the ‘on’ or ‘off’ state.
 Therefore, the results obtained from a digital computer are accurate.
 Virtually all of today’s computers are based on digital computers. Hybrid
Computers
 It combines the good features of both analog & digital computers.
 It has a speed of analog computer & accuracy of digital computer.
 Hybrid Computers accept data in analog form and present output also in
digitally.
 The data however is processed digitally.
 Therefore, hybrid computers require analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog
converters for output.

5. EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY

DATA PROCESSING:
The computers are classified in four types on the based on data processing.
 Micro computer
 Mini computer
 Mainframe computer
 Super computer Micro Computer:
 Micro computers are the computers with having a microprocessor chip as it
central processing unit.
 Originated in late 1970s.
 First microcomputer was built with 8 bit processor.
 Microcomputer is known as personal computer.
 Designed to use by individual whether in the form of pc’s, workstation or
notebook computers.
 Small in size and affordable for general people.
 Ex: IBM PC, IBM PC/XT, IBM PC/AT

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 Micro Computer:
 Mini computers are originated in 1960s.
 Small mainframes that perform limited tasks.
 Less expensive than mainframe computer.
 Mini computers are Lower mainframe in the terms of processing capabilities.
 Capable of supporting 10 to 100 users simultaneously.
 In 1970s it contains 8 bit or 12-bit processor.
 Gradually the architecture requirement is grown and 16 and 32 bit.
 Minicomputers are invented which are known as supermini computers.
 Ex: IBM AS400
Mainframe Computer:
 A very powerful computer which capable of supporting thousands of user
simultaneously.
 It contains powerful data processing system.
 It is capable to run multiple operating systems.
 It is capable to process 100 million instructions per second.
 Mainframes are very large & expensive computers with having larger
internal storage capacity & high processing speed.
 Mainframes are used in the organization that need to process large number
of transaction online & required a computer system having massive storage
& processing capabilities.
 Mainly used to handle bulk of data & information for processing.
 Mainframe system is housed in a central location with several user terminals
connected to it.
 Much bigger in size & needs a large room with closely humidity &
temperature.
 IBM & DEC are major vendors of mainframes.
 Ex : MEDHA, SPERRY, IBM, DEC, HP, HCL
Super Computer:
 Most powerful & most expensive computer.
 Used for complex scientific application that requires huge processing power.
 Used multiprocessor technology to perform the calculation very speedy.
 They are special purpose computers that are designed to perform some
specific task.

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  The cost of the super computer is depended on its processing capabilities &
configuration.
 The speed of modern computer is measured in gigaflops, teraflops and
petaflops.
o Gigaflops= 109 arithmetic operation per second.
o Teraflops=1012 arithmetic operation per second.
o Petaflops=1015 arithmetic operation per second.
 Ex: PARAM, EKA, BLUE GENE/P

6. EXPLAIN THE GENERATION OF THE COMPUTERS.

In Computer language, “Generation” is a set of Technology. It provides a
framework for the growth of the computer technology. There are totally Five Computer
Generations till today. Discussed as following.
First Generation:
 Duration: 1942-1955
 Technology: vacuum tube
o Used as a calculating device.
o Performed calculations in milliseconds.
o To bulky in size & complex design.
o Required large room to place it.
o Generates too much heat & burnt.
o Required continuously hardware maintenance.
o Generates much heat so must air-conditioner rooms are required.
o Commercial production is difficult & costly.
o Difficult to configure.
o Limited commercial use.
o ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC are example of 1st generation computer.

Second Generation:
 Duration: 1955-1964
 Technology: transistor
o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generation system.
o Less heat than 1st generation computers.
o Consumed less power than 1st generation system.
o Computers were done calculations in microseconds.
o Air-conditioner is also required.
o Easy to configure than 1st generation computers.
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 o More reliable in information.
o Wider commercial use.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 1st generation computers.

Third Generation:
 Duration: 1965-1975
 Technology: IC chip
o Smaller in size than 1st & 2nd generation computers.
o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generation systems.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd generation computers.
o Air –conditioner is required.
o Widely used for commercial applications.
o General purpose computers.
o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are allowed to write programs.
o Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generation computer.

Fourth Generation:
 Duration: 1975-1989
 Technology: Microprocessor chip
o Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessor chip.
o Smaller in size.
o Much faster than previous generations.
o Minimum hardware maintenance is required.
o Very reliable as computer to previous generation computers.
o Totally general purpose computer.
o Easy to configure.
o Possible to use network concept to connect the computer together.
o NO requirement of air-conditioners.
o Cheapest in price.

Fifth Generation:
 Duration: 1989 to Present
 Technology: ULSI microprocessor chip
o Much smaller & handy.
o Based on the ULSI chip which contains 100 million electronic components.
o The speed of the operations is increased.
o Consumed less power.
o Air-conditioner is not required.
o More user friendly interface with multi-media features.
o High level languages are allowed to write programs.
o Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previous generations.
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 o Notebook computers are the example of 5th generation computers.

7. EXPLAIN THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER OR

EXPLAIN THE SIMPLE MODEL COMPUTER.
A simple computer system comprises the basic components like Input Devices, CPU
(Central Processing Unit) and Output Devices as under:

 Input Devices:
o The devices which are used to entered data in the computer systems are
known as input devices.
o Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of input devices.
FUNCTION OF INPUT DEVICES
o Accept the data from the outside worlds.
o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to CPU for further processing.
 Output Devices:
o The devices which display the result generated by the computer are known
as output devices.
o Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the example of output devices.

FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT DEVICES

o Accept the result form the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.
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 o Display the result on the output device.

 Memory Unit:
o The data & instruction have to store inside the computer before the actual
processing start.
o Same way the result of the computer must be stored before passed to the
output devices. This tasks performed by memory unit.

FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY UNIT

o Store data & instruction received from input devices.
o Store the intermediate results generated by CPU.
o Store the final result generated by CPU.

 Arithmetical & Logical Unit:

o The ALU is the place where actual data & instruction are processed.
o All the calculations are performed & all comparisons are made in ALU.
o Performs all arithmetical & logical operations.
o An arithmetic operation contains basic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division.
o Logical operations contain comparison such as less than, greater than, less
than equal to, greater than equal to, equal to, not equal to.

 Control Unit:
o It controls the movement of data and program instructions into and out of
the CPU, and to control the operations of the ALU.
o In sort, its main function is to manage all the activities within the computer
system.
o Controls the internal parts as well as the external parts related with the
computer.
 CPU:
o The Unit where all the processing is done is called as Central Processing Unit.
o It contains many other units under it.
o Main of them are: - Control Unit And ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit)

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 INPUT DEVICES

1. WHAT IS INPUT DEVICES?

 The Input devices are the devices which are used to enter the data in the
computer system.
 Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone are the example of input devices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES:
o Accept the data from the outside worlds.
o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to Central Processing Unit for further processing.

OUTPUT DEVICES
1. WHAT IS OUTPUT DEVICE.
 The output devices are the devices which are used to display the result
generated by the computer system.
 Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker are the example of output devices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES:
o Accept the result from the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.
o Supply this result to output device.


2. WHAT IS PRINTER? EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF PRINTER.

Printer
 The printer is a most commonly used output device.
 It is used to producing the hard copy output.
 It prints characters, symbols & graphics on the paper.
 Printer can be categorised according to the technology used in printer, speed,
and approach of printing, colours, language & the quality of printing.
 Mainly printer can be classified in two types:
o Impact printer
o Non impact printer IMPACT PRINTER:
 It works on the same mechanism of type-writer.
 It forms a character or image by striking mechanism such as hammer or wheel
against to ink ribbon, leaving an image on paper.
 It is oldest technology and still is in used.
 It can capable to print single character or line at the same time.
 Commonly types of impact printers are dot matrix, daisy wheel, chain, drum
printer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPACT PRINTER:
o Physical contact with paper to produce output.
o Low cost
o Very noisy
o Very slow in printing
o Low quality print out
o Stand with dusty or extreme environment NON IMPACT PRINTER:
 Non impact printer forms characters & images on paper without actually
striking the paper.
 Paper & print head come in contact & hence the text or image is formed.
 Ink jet & laser printer are example of non-impact printer. CHARACTERISTICS OF
NON IMPACT PRINTER
o Faster than impact printer.
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 o Ability to change type face automatically.
o High quality output.
o Support transparency.
o More expensive than impact printer.
o Less maintenance than impact printer.
3. EXPLAIN IMPACT PRINTERS.
Dot matrix printer:
 Character printer.
 Capable to print single character at the same time.
 Forms characters & images as a pattern of dots.
 Contains a print head which moves horizontally across paper.
 Uses 5 × 7 matrix to form a character.
 Print by hammering the pins on inked ribbon to leave ink impressions on the
paper.
 Able to print 30 to 600 characters per second.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost & easily available.
o Cheap in cost.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Low maintenance cost.
o Work with any type of environment.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slow in speed.
o Very noisy.
o Cannot work perfectly in graphics.

DAISY WHEEL PRINTER:

 Character printer.
 Able to print a single character at the same time.
 Contain a metal wheel on which the characters & numbers are raised on the
each petal.
 The wheel is rotated very fast when the desired characters arrives at correct
position a print hammer strike to produce output.
 Different type of font face can be used by replacing the daisy wheel.
 Able to print bold letter by striking on specific characters twice or thrice.
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  Capable to print 10 to 50 characters per second.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Low maintenance cost.
o Printing quality is similar to a type writer.
o Able to print bold characters.
o Allows using different font-face in same document.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very slow in speed.
o Very noisy.
o Cannot print graphics. DRUM PRINTER:
 It’s a line printer.
 Able to print a line at the same time.
 Consist of a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed on it in circular
band.
 Each band consists of character set which contains 96 characters.
 Drum rotates fastly when desired characters arrives an appropriate hammer
stike on ribbon & character is print on paper.
 Capable to print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost than non impact printer.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Low maintenance cost.
o Faster than other impact printer.
o Printing quality is similar to a type writer.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very slow in speed.
o Very noisy.
o Large & heavy.
o Cannot print graphics.
o Only prints predefined set of characters. CHANIN PRINTER:
 It’s a line printer.

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  Able to print a line at the same time.
 Consist of a metallic chain on which all characters of character set are
embossed.
 Character set contains 48, 64 or 96 characters.
 Characters are embossed several times.
 Chain rotates at high speed when the desired characters in correct position the
hammer strikes & the characters are print on paper.
 Capable to print 400 to 2500 lines per minutes.
 ADVANTAGES:
o Low cost than non impact printer.
o Can make carbon copy of print out.
o Chain can be easily changed.
o Allowed to print different type font.
o Printing quality is similar to a type writer.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slower than non impact printer.
o Very noisy.
o Large & heavy.
o Cannot print graphics.
o Only prints predefined set of characters.
7. EXPALAIN NON-IMPACT PRINTERS.
INK-JET PRINTER:
 It’s non-impact printer.
 It’s a character printer.
 Forms characters and all kinds of images by spraying drops of ink on to the
paper.
 Print head contains 64 tiny nozzles.
 To print a character the printer the printer selectively heats the appropriate set
of nozzle as the print head moves horizontally.
 Inkjet printer can either colour or monochrome.
 Capable to print 30 to 400 characters per minutes.
 ADVANTAGES:
o High quality output.
o Silent during the operation.
o Able to print graphics.
o Able to print any characters & graphics.
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 o Able to generate colour & monochrome output.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Slower than dot matrix printer.
o Cannot make carbon copy of print out.
o Expensive than impact printer. LASER PRINTER:
 It’s non-impact printer.
 It’s a page printer.
 Three main components laser beam, a multi-sided mirror, a photoconductive
drum & toner.
 To print page laser beam is focused on drum by spinning multisided mirror.
 Drum is electric charged.
 Toner which is composed of oppositely charged ink particles, stick to the drum.
 Then toner focused on the paper with heat & pressure to generate output.
 Low speed laser printer can print 4 to 12 page per minute while high speed laser
printer Capable to print 500 to 1000 pages per minutes.
 ADVANTAGES:
o High quality output.
o Very faster in speed.
o Silent during the operation.
o Able to print graphics.
o Able to print any characters & graphics.
o Able to generate colour & monochrome output.
 DISADVANTAGES:
o Very expensive.
o Cannot make carbon copy of print out.

8. WRITE DOWN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPACT &

NON-IMPACT PRINTER.
Impact printer Non impact printer
Printing character by striking hammer Printing characters or graphics by spraying
against ink ribbon to produce output ink on paper.
Slow in speed Faster than impact printer
Work with any environment Can’t work with all environment
Less expensive than non impact printer More expensive than impact printer
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 Noisy during printing Silent during printing
Able to produced carbon copy output Cant able to produced carbon copy
output
e.g.: e.g.:
daisy wheel, drum, chain, dot matrix inkjet, laser

WRITE A BRIEF NOTE ON SPEAKER.

 The speaker is output device which is connected to computer’s soundcard.
 The speaker output the sound generated by the sound card.
 Audio data is generated by computer is send to audio card which is located
inside extension slot.
 It can translate data into audio signal which are sending to speaker.
 The speaker can able to produced series of different tones.

EXPLAIN PRIMORY STORAGE DEVICE.

 It’s a temporary storage.

 It consists of some chips.
 The data & instruction are resided in this memory when the CPU executing
programs.
 This memory can capable to store & retrieved data very quickly.
 Primary memory is only the memory that is directly access to the CPU.

WRITE A DETAIL NOTE ON HARD DISK

 Hard disks are most popular secondary storage device.
 It supports the direct access of the data.
 It’s a thin magnetic plate which is made of metal n both side coated with
magnetic material.
 The disk is divided in many tracks & the data is store in both side of the disk.
 The disk pack consists of multiple disk plates.
 The disk drive pack has a separate read/write head for each disk surface.
 The disk drive consists of motor to rotate the disk pack about its axis at a speed
of about 5400 revolution per minute.
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
 RAM
 The complete name of RAM is random access memory which is also known as
Primary memory.
 It is called read/write memory because data can be read as well as write in
RAM.
 It is called random access because you can directly access any data from RAM if
you know row & column cell.
 The RAM chip is fixed on the mother board & the mother board is designed in
such a way that its memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more RAM
chip.
 RAM is a VOLETILE memory.
 RAM chips are of two types:
DRAM:
 Dynamic Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that allows fast access to
data and is ideal for use as the primary store of computer systems.
 However, the information is stored as electrical charges and the charges need
to be constantly refreshed in order for the data to be maintained.

SRAM:
 Static Random Access Memory is also a volatile memory.
 Once data is written into the chip, it is maintained as long as power is supplied
to it; it does not need refreshing.
 However, SRAM is slower than DRAM and it is also more expensive.
ROM
 The complete name of ROM is read only memory.
 The data stored permanently & can’t be altered by the programmer.
 Data stored in RAM chip can be read & used but cannot be changed.
 This memory also known a field storage permanent storage or dead storage.
 It is basically used to store manufacturer programmed & user program.
 Most of the basic operations are carried out by electronic circuits which are
known as micro programs.
 These programs are stored in ROM. For ex. System Boot Loader.
ROM
 The complete name of ROM is read only memory.
 The data stored permanently & can’t be altered by the programmer.
 Data stored in RAM chip can be read & used but cannot be changed.

PROM
 Programmable Read Only Memory is a non-volatile memory which allows the
user to program the chip with a PROM writer.
 The chip can be programmed once, thereafter, it cannot be altered.
EPROM & EEPROM
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory and Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory chips can be electrically programmed.
 Unlike ROM and PROM chips, EPROM chips can be erased and reprogrammed.

 NUMBER SYSTEM

Introduction
 All digital computers store numbers, letters, and other characters in coded
form.
 The code used to represent characters is the Binary Code – i.e. a code made
up of bits called Binary Digits.
 Every character is represented by a string of “0s” and “1s” – the only digits
found in the binary numbering system.
“0” or “1” = bit (Binary Digit) 8 bits = 1 Byte (1
Character) 1024 Bytes = 1 KB (Kilo Bytes) 1024 KB = 1
MB (Mega Byte) 1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte) 1024
GB= 1 TB (Terra Byte)
 When data is typed into a computer, the key board converts each key stroke
into a binary character code. This code is then transmitted to the computer.
 When the computer transmits the data to the any device, each individual
character is communicated in binary code. It is then converted back to the
specific character while displaying or printing the data.
Number Systems
 Numbers earlier consisted of symbols like I for 1, II for 2, III for 3 etc. Each
 Symbol represented the same value irrespective of its position in the
number.
 This approach is called an additive approach. As time passed positional
numbering systems were developed. In such a system the number of
symbols is few and they represent different values depending on the
position they occupy.
 Now we know that numbers can be represented by arranging symbols in
various positions.
Decimal Number System (Base 10)
 In the decimal system the successive positions to the left of the decimal
point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands etc. For example if we
consider
 The number 7762, the digit 2 represents the number of units, 6 represents
the number of tens, 7 the number of hundreds and 7 the number of
thousands.
(7 x 1000) + (7 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (2 x 1) = 7762
 Thus as we move one position to the left, the value of the digit increases by
ten times. We can see that the position of the number affects its value.
46
  These kinds of number systems are therefore called positional number
systems.
 In other words the number of symbols used to represent numbers in the
system is called the base of that system. In short we can say that the value of
each digit in the number system is determined by:
 The digit itself
 The position of the digit in the number itself
 The base of the system.
 The Roman numbering system uses symbols like I, II, III, IV, V etc. To
represent the decimal numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
 As we can see this follows an additive approach and hence is not conductive
to arithmetic.
Binary Number System (Base 2)
 We now come to a different number system – the Binary number system.
 This binary number system has a base of two, and the symbols used are “0”
And “1”.
 In this number system, as we move to the left the value of the digit will be
two times greater than its predecessor. Thus the values of the places are: 64
32 16 8 4 2 1
Converting Decimal To Binary
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps to be
followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of 2.
o Note the remainder in one column and divide the quotient again with
the base. Repeat this process until the quotient is reduced to a zero.
Example:
 The decimal number is 65
2 65 1
2 32 0
2 16 0
2 8 0
2 4 0
2 2 0
1
 The binary number of 65 is 1000001
Converting Binary To Decimal
The decimal number of 100001 is
= (1*26)+(0*25)+(0*24)+(0*23)+(0*22)+(0*21)+(1*20)
= (1*64) + (0*32) + (0*16) + (0*8) + (0*4) + (0*2) + (1 * 1)
47
Prepared By: Dr.Sapna Shah
 = 64 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1
= 65
 The decimal number of 1000001 is 65 Octal Number System (Base 8)
 A commonly used positional system is the Octal System. The octal system
has a base of 8.
 The values increase from left to right as 1, 8, 64, 512, 4096,….

Converting Decimal To Octal

 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps to be
followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of the 8.
Example:
 The decimal number is 224
8 224 0
8 28 4
8 3 3

 The octal number of 224 is 340

Converting Octal To Decimal
 The octal number is 340
 = (3*82)+(4*81)+(0*80)
 = (3*64) + (4*8) + (0*1)
 = 192 + 32 + 0
 = 224
 The decimal number of 340 is 224
Converting Binary Octal
000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5

110 6
111 7
Converting from Binary to Octal
48
  The binary number must be divided into groups of three from the octal point
– to the right in case of the fractional portion and to the left in case of the
integer portion. Each group can then be replaced with their octal equivalent.
 Example
 Binary 101010101010100
101 010 101 010 100
5 2 5 2 4
 So, 52524 is the Octal equivalent of binary 101010101010100
Converting Octal to Binary
 Each octal digit is replaced with the appropriate ‘triple’ of binary digits.
e.g. 65
6 5
110 101
 The binary equivalent of the Octal number 65 is 110101 Hexadecimal
Number System (Base 16)
 There is another commonly used positional system, hexadecimal system.
 The hexadecimal system has a base of 16, so the value increases from left to
right as 1, 16, 256, 65536,. . . .
 We need to keep a simple table in mind before we attempt any conversion
from hexadecimal or vice-versa.
Converting Decimal To HexaDecimal
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps to be
followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of 16.
Example:
 The decimal number is 370
16 370 2
16 23 7
16 1 1
0
 The hexadecimal number of 370 is 172
Converting Hexadecimal To Decimal
The hexadecimal number 172
= (1*162) + (7*161) + (2*160)
= (1*256) + (7*16) + (2*1)
= 256+112+2
49
 = 370
 The decimal number of 172 is 370

Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

 Each hexadecimal digit is represented by 4 binary digits. Binary Hexadecimal
00 0
00
00 1
01
00 2
10
00 3
11
01 4
00
01 5
01
01 6
10
01 7
11
10 8
00
10 9
01
10 A
10
10 B
11
11 C
00
11 D
01
11 E
10
11 F
11
 To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent we split the
quantity into groups of four onwards, as before.
 Each of this group of four is directly converted into their hexadecimal
 equivalent.
 We may add zeros to the left of the number if necessary.
 example
Binary 10101011000010
0010 1010 1100 0010
2 A C 2
 So, the hexadecimal equivalent of binary 10101011000010 will be 2AC2
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
 The conversion from hexadecimal to binary consists of writing off the binary
50
 Equivalent of each hexadecimal digit in groups of four.
 e.g.
Hexadecimal 1901A0412C
0001 1001 0000 0001 1010 0000 0100 0001 0010 1100
1 9 0 1 A 0 4 1 2 C
 Thus the required binary number can be written as:
1100100000001101000000100000100101100

Converting Hexadecimal to Octal

 Write 4 digit binary numbers for each hexadecimal.
 Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 3 bit section.
 If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmost section.
 Now write down octal equivalent of each 3 bit section.
 Example:
 The hexadecimal number is 2A35.
2 A 3 5
0010 1010 0011 0101
000 010 101 000 110 101
0 2 5 0 6 5
 The octal number is 25065
Converting Octal to Hexadecimal
 Write 3 digit binary number for each octal.
 Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 4 bit section.
 If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmost section.
 Now write down hexadecimal equivalent of each 4 bit section.
 Example:
 The octal number is 25065.
2 5 0 6 5
010 101 000 110 101
0010 1010 0011 0101
2 A 3 5
The hexadecimal number is 2A35
Binary Arithmetic

51
 All the arithmetic operations are possible in binary numbering system like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division All the Arithmetic
operations are done in binary number system are explained as under:

Addit For binary addition the following rules of binary addition are to be
ion considered:
o 0+0=0
o 0+1=1
o 1+0=1
o 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next column to the left)
o 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (carry 1 to the next column)
e.g. 1 Add two binary numbers 11011 and 111
Carry 1 1 1 1
10111
+111
1 0 0 0 1 0 (Answer)
Subtraction
 Though there are other methods of performing subtraction, we will consider
the method of subtraction know as complementary subtraction.
 This is a more efficient method of subtraction while using electronic circuits.
We will be following three steps to perform subtraction:
o Find the complement of the number you are subtracting.
o To the complement of the number we obtained in step 1, we add the
number we are subtracting from.
o If there is a carry of 1 add the carry to the result of the addition else re
complement the sum and attach a negative sign.
 How do we find the complement of a binary number? We have to invert all
the bits. e.g. Number Complement
10001101 01110010
00101010 11010101
 Consider the following example of subtraction:
e.g. 1
1010101 – 1001100
 Step-1. Find the complement of 1001100 0110011

52
  Step-2. Add the number you are subtracting from Carry 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1010101
+0110011

0001000
+ 1 (Continue since there is a carry of 1)

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 (Answer)
e.g. 2
101100 – 11100101
 Step-1. Find the complement of 11100101 00011010
 Step-2. Add the number you are subtracting from Carry 0 1 1 1
00101100
+00011010
0 1000110
 Step-3. Since there is no carry we are complement the result 10111001
attach a negative sign
 - 10111001 (Answer) Multiplication
 Multiplication
 Multiplication in binary follows the same rules that are followed in the
decimal system. The table to be remembered is:
 0x0=0
 0x1=0
 1x0=0
 1x1=1
 e.g.
1010 * 1001
1010
x 1001
 1010
0000
0000
1010

101101 0
 The answer is (1011010)

Divi
sion  Table for binary division is given as under:
 0/1=1
 1/1=1
 The steps for binary division are:
o Start from the left of the dividend.
o Perform subtraction in which the divisor is subtracted from the
dividend
o If subtraction is possible put a 1 in the quotient and subtract the
divisor from the corresponding digits of the dividend else put a 0 in
the quotient
o Bring down the next digit to the right of the remainder.
o Execute step 2 till there are no more digits left to strating down from
the dividend.
 e.g.
 100001 / 110
0101 (quotient)
110 100001
110
1000
110
100
110
1001
110
11 (reminder)

54
 Unit Of Information (Codes)
 Most computers do not represent characters as pure binary numbers.
 They use a coded version of true binary to represent letters and special symbols
as well as decimal numbers.
 Coding of characters has been standardized to enable transfer of data between
computers.
 Codes used are:
- BCD
- ASCII
- EBCDIC
BCD
 BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal.
 BCD code is one of the early computer codes.
 It is based on the idea of converting each digit of a decimal number into its
binary equivalent rather than converting the entire decimal into binary form.
 All decimal digits are represented in BCD by 4 bit.
 Each decimal digit is independently converted into a 4 bit binary number & so
the conversion process is very easy.
 4 bit BCD can be used to represents only decimal numbers because 4 bits are
insufficient to represent various characters.
 By using 4 bit BCD only 16 possible characters are represented.
 So the BCD code was extended from 6-bit code and it is possible to represent 64
characters.

ASCII

 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

 In this form of representation, each character (which includes alphabets, digits
and symbols) is assigned a particular pattern of bits.
 For example, A is represented as binary 1000012, B as 10000102 and so on.
 The standard ASCII character set uses 7 bits and can be used to represent 128
different characters.
 It uses one extra parity bit for parity check.
 Other forms of ASCII codes use an extra bit to extend the representation to 256
characters.
 However, characters represented from binary are not universally agreed upon.
 The most popular form is the set used by IBM.
 ASCII is commonly used to exchange data between data processing and
communication systems.

55
EBCDIC

 EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.

 It uses 8 bits and can represent 256 distinct characters.
 It also uses one extra parity bit for parity check.
 The EBCDIC code is used in IBM mainframe models and other similar machines.
 Electronic Circuits are available to transform characters from ASCII to EBCDIC
and vice-versa and can also be achieved using computer programs.

UNICODE
 With the onset of globalization through Internet, there emerged a need to
Cater for data interchange of the more common languages of the different
nationalities like Chinese, Korea and Japanese.
 ASCII, EBCDIC and other forms of representation proved insufficient.
 The Unicode/ISO 10646 standard was devised to overcome this problem.
 The 16 bits used by Unicode can represent 65536 symbols, one extra parity bit
for parity check, which is more than enough to represent all the worlds written
characters.
 Although Unicode solves the problem of multi-language data representation, it
is not the perfect solution as there remain issues to be addressed.
 Problems include the wastage of storage space, time needed for data
transmission and the lack of support of current operating systems.
 Furthermore, Unicode does not guarantee a particular sort order.

Parity Check

 A parity check is a technique to detect the correctness of characters

transmitted.
 For each character transmitted, a bit knows as the parity bit is added.
 In an Even Parity System, a parity bit is added such that the total number of ‘1’s,
inclusive of the parity bit, is even.
 In an Odd Parity System, the total number of ‘1’ bits transmitted must be odd.
 The parity check is not fool proof. It will fail when an even number of bits were
incorrectly received.
 This cannot be recognized by this system. That if they are incorrectly received or
not.
LANGUAGES, OPERATING SYSTEM &
SOFTWARE PACKAGES
Introduction
 A computer can only do what a programmer asks it to do.
 To perform a particular task programmer writes a sequence, called the
program.
 An instruction command given to the computer to perform a certain specified
operation on the given data.
 Now as we know only human languages and computer knows only machine
language, we need some media through which we can communicate with the
computer.
 So we can complete our desired task. That media is Language.
 Languages are tools human can use to communicate with the hardware of a
computer system.
 Each language has a systematic method of using symbols of that language.
 In English, this method is given by the rules of grammar.
 Similarly, the symbols of particular one computer language must also be used as
per set of rules which are known as the “Syntax” of that language, the language
which you are using.
 Computer Languages can be classified into three broad categories:

LANGUAGES

MACHINE ASSEMBLY HIGH-LEVEL

LANGUAGE LANGUAGES LANGUAGES

1. WHAT IS MACHINE LANGUAGE?

 Computer programs are written using many different computer Languages but
the language which is understood by the computer without translating program
is called machine language.
 Machine language is normally written as string of binary 1s and 0s.
 A machine language instruction has two part format.

57
 OPCODE OPERAND
(OPERATION CODE) (ADDRESS)

 The 1st part is the operation code which tells the computer what function to be
performed.
 The 2nd part is the operand which tells the computer where to find & store data
to be manipulated.
 So each instruction tells the computer what operation to perform & the length
& location of the data field which are involved in the operation.
Advantages
 Programs can be executed immediately upon completion because it doesn’t
require any translation.
 Now extra storage space is needed.
 Programmer has complete control over the performance of the hardware.
Disadvantage
 Tedious to program
 Difficult to program
 Difficult to modify
 Time consuming to code
 Error prone
 Operation codes have to be memorised
 Assignment of memory is done by programmer
 Time consuming for development
 Programs development are machine dependent
 Preparation of programs was slow and costly.

2. EXPLAIN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE.

 Assembly language is a language which allows instruction & storage location to

be represented by letters & symbols, instead of number.
 A program written in an assembly language is called assembly language
program or symbolic program.
 Assembly language was introduced in 1952.
 Machine language was tedious to code and errors were expected to arise in
bulk.
 To solve these problems mnemonic codes and symbolic addresses were
developed.
 It allows using alphanumeric mnemonic codes instead of numeric code for the
instructions in instruction set. For example using ADD instead of 1110 or 14 to
add.
58
  The storage locations are to be represented in the form of alphanumeric
addresses instead of numeric address.
 Format of assembly language is similar to machine language:

MNEMONIC CODE SYMBOLIC ADDRESS

Example of Assembly language instruction:

 This instruction adds value of NUM1 to the AX (Accumulator Register).
 The symbolic language made program writing so much easier for the
Programmers but it must be translated into machine code before being used for
operation.
 The translation is actually done by a special translating program. Assembler
 Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates symbolic operation
codes into machine codes, and symbolic address is addressed into an actual
machine address.
Advantage
 Easier to use, code and understand.
 Easier to correct error.
 Easier to modify.
 No worry about addresses.
 Easily relocatable.
 Efficiency of machine language.
 Can use Macros (Macro is a bunch of instruction referred as a single name)
Disadvantage
 Machine depended.
 Programs have to be translated before execution.
 Translation of programs takes up time.
 Knowledge of hardware is required.
 Additional storage area needed for the source programs and object code.
Examples of Assembly Language
 Microsoft Assembly Language (MASM), Turbo Assembler

3. WRITE A NOTE ON HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE.

 The machine language & assembly language requires a good knowledge of
internal structure of computer.
 The both languages are machine dependent & it is difficult to solve error.
 To remove this limitation the high level language are introduced.

59
  The high level languages machine independent so it can be easily ported &
executed on any computer.
 The high level language programs do not require any knowledge of internal
structure of computer so the programmer concentrate on the logic of problem
rather than internal structure of computer.
 It enables the programmer to write instructions using English words & familiar
mathematical symbols & expression so the program makes easier to code &
understand.
 It requires a translator program to convert high level program into machine
language.
Compiler
 Compiler is a special program (translator) which translates high level programs
into machine codes.
Advantages:
 Machine independent.
 Easier to learn, use and understand.
 Easier to correct error.
 Easier to maintain.
 Less time & efforts.
 Easily relocatable.
 Program preparation cost is low.
 Few errors. Disadvantages:
 Less flexible.
 Lower efficiency.
 Require more time & storage space.
4. SHORT NOTE: ASSEMBLER
 A computer can directly execute only machine language programs so the
assembly language program must be converted into its equivalent machine
language program before can be executed.
 This translation is done with the help of a translator program which is known as
assembler.
 Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates symbolic operation
codes into machine codes, and symbolic address is addressed into an actual
machine address.
  As shown in figure that the input to assembler is the assembly language
program (source program) and the output is the machine language program
(object program).
 Assembler translates each assembly language instruction into equivalent
machine language instruction.
 There is one to one correspondence between the assembly language
instructions of source program & the machine language instruction of its
equivalent object program.
 In case of assembly language program, the computer not only has to run the
program but also must first run assembler program to translate the original
assembly language program into machine language program.
 So the computer has to spend more time in getting desired answer.

5. WRITE A NOTE ON COMPILER

 A computer can directly execute only machine language programs.
 So the high level language program must be converted into its equivalent
machine language program before can be executed.
 This translation is done with the help of a translator program which is known as
compiler.
 A compiler is a translator program which translates a high level language
program into equivalent machine language program.
 The process of translating is shown in below figure:

 As shown in figure that the input to compiler is the high level language program
(source program) and the output is the machine language program (object
program).
 High level language instructions are macro instructions.
 The compiler translates each high level language instruction into set of machine
language instructions rather than a single machine language instruction.
 There is one to many correspondences between high level language instructions
of source program into equivalent object program.
 During the translation the source program is only translates not executed.

61
  A compiler can translate only those source programs which have written in the
language for which compiler is designed.
 A compiler can also detect & indicates the syntax errors during the compilation
process but cannot able to detect logical errors.

6. WRITE A NOTE ON INTERPRETER.

 An interpreter is another type of translator which is used for translating

program written using high level languages.
 It takes one statement of high level language, translates into machine language
& immediately executes the resulting machine language instructions.
 The main difference between compiler & interpreter is that compiler can
translate the entire code but not involve in execution.

High level language INTERPRETER output Result of

(Translates &
In executes statement program
put Program by statement) execution

 As shown in figure that the input to an interpreter is a source program & the
output is the result of an execution program.
 Interpreter translates & executes a high level language program statement-by-
statement.
 A program statement is reinterpreted every time it is encountered during
program execution.
 The main advantage of interpreter is that interpreter makes it easier & faster to
correct programs.
 The main disadvantage is that interpreter is slower than compilers when
running a finished program.

7. WHAT IS OPERATING SYSTEM?

 An operating system is a software program that provides an interface between
user & the computer and manages thousands of applications.
 It’s a collection of system software that co-ordinates between the hardware,
provides a platform for software to run on.
 An operating system is an integrated set of programs that the resources (the
CPU, memory, I/O devices etc) of computer system & provides an interface to
the user to run the machine.
 The main two primary objective of operating system are:
o Making a computer system convenient to use
62
 o Managing the resources of a computer system

FUNCTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1) PROCESS MANAGEMENT
o The process management of OS taking care about the creation & deletion
of user & system process, providing mechanism for process
synchronization & process communication.
2) MEMORY MANAGEMENT
o The memory management of OS taking care about the allocation &
deallocation of memory space to the various programs in need of this
resource.
3) FILE MANAGEMENT
o The file management of OS is taking care about the file related activities
such as creation, storing, retrieving, naming, sharing & organization of
files.
4) SECURITY
o The security model of OS protects the resources & information of a
computer system against destruction & unauthorized access.
5) COMMAND INTERPRETATION
o This model taking care of interpreting user commands & directing the
system resources to handle the requests.

8. WHAT IS BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM.

 In Batch operating system, data is collected over a period of time and the
processing of the data is deferred to a later time.
 This approach was used very commonly in the past when punch cards served as
data storage media and is used as input into the computer system for
processing.
 In batch processing, the data have first to be captured, normally as a form of
source documents, like time cards, or alternatively, by RJE (Remote Job Entry)
where data is gathered through remote terminals.
 The data will then be transmitted to the computer or the source document will
be physically transported to the data centre where transcription (conversion of
source document data into machine readable form) is performed.
 The data is processed by the computer and the resulting output is given to the
users.
 Batch processing is suitable in application where there are large amounts of
data and when the turnaround times are not critical.
63
  As data are transcribed into machine readable form before submitting for
processing, the speed of processing is therefore determined by the computer
and not by the operator.
 Payroll processing is suitable for batch processing as it is only performed on a
regular basis. ( for example every month)
ADVANTAGES:
 Less complicated.
 After input process is over, while processing is going on, user can attend other
jobs.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Long turnaround time.
 Access to one is not possible.
 Difficult to provide priority scheduling.
 Not convenient for program development.

9. EXPLAIN REALTIME OPERATIN SYSTEM.

 Real-Time systems are always on-line but on-line systems need not be real-time
systems.
 However, further constraints are placed in terms of response time and
availability of the system.
 By definition, a real time system receive data and process it quickly enough to
produce output which can be used to control or affect the outcome of an
ongoing activity of process.
 In general, real-time systems handle small volumes of data at any one time and
the turnaround time is critical.
 Feedback is essential in real-time systems so that processing can keep pace with
external factors.
 Most real-time systems are used in mission critical application like process
control and therefore, reliability and availability is of paramount importance.
 Missile guidance systems are examples of real-time systems.
 Control signals are sent to the fins of the missile to correct any deviations.
Advantages
 Error messages are immediate
 Source documents are available at the time the error occurs.
 Faster than on-line systems. Disadvantages
 Direct access devices have to be used.
 Elaborate controls and backup procedures to guard against unwarranted access
to the system.
 Control checks are difficult since updating occurs at the time of processing.
64
 10. EXPLAIN TIME SHARING OPERATING SYSTEM
 Time-sharing is a mechanism that allows the many users to use a computer
system in such a way that each user is given the impression that they use their
own system.
 It has many user terminals simultaneously connected to the same computer.
 Using these terminals multiple users can simultaneously work on the system.
 The multiprogramming feature allows multiple programs to simultaneously
reside in the memory.
 The special scheduling algorithm used in a time-sharing system.
 In this very short period of CPU time allocates to each user process.
 When the CPU is allocated to user process, the process will use CPU until the
allocate time slice is expires or the execution process is over during this time
period.
Features:
o The processing time is divided among various programs in time slices.
o Each program is given control of CPU only for time slice turn by turn.
Advantages:
o Reduce CPU idle time
o Provides advantages of quick response time.
o Offers good computing facility to small users.

11. EXPLAIN:MULTIPROGRAMMING OPERATING SYSTEM

 Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved execution of two or
more different & independent programs by the same computer.
 In this more than one program in main memory at a same time.
 In multiprogramming operating system two or more programs are residing in
the main memory and it execute them concurrently.
 In this operating system the CPU can allocate time to several programs instead
of remaining idle when one program is busy with I/O operations the another
program is ready to utilize the CPU.
ADVANTAGES:
 Many programs can run simultaneously.
 Time is not wasted.
 Maximum use of resources. DISADVANTAGES:
 Required large memory.
 Required memory protection.

65
  Job of resources management & memory management increases.

12. EXPLAIN: MULTIPROCESSING OPERATING SYSTEM

 It is the type of operating system that makes the use of more than one CPU.
 The term multiprocessing describes interconnected two or more CPUs that have
an ability to execute several programs simultaneously.
 In such system, instruction from different independent programs can be
processed at same instant of time by different CPU.

ADVANTAGES:
 It improves the performance of computer.
 Less turnaround time.
 In case of failure of one CPU other can take over without any loss.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Large main memory required.
 Expensive
 Design of the system makes time consuming process.6
 TECHNOLOGIES AND VIRUS

Introduction
 Emerging technologies are contemporary advances and innovation in various
fields of technology.
 Various converging technologies have emerged in the technological
convergence of different systems evolving towards similar goals.
 Convergence can refer to previously separate technologies such as voice (and
telephony features), data (and productivity applications) and video that now
share resources and interact with each other, creating new efficiencies.
 Emerging technologies are those technical innovations which represent
progressive developments within a field for competitive advantage

o
2. SHORT NOTE: GPS
 GPS means Global Positioning System and it is a satellite based navigation
system.
 GIS is a system that can provide a position at any point on the Earth’s surface to
a very high degree of accuracy.
 GPS provides the position information of the earth.
 GPS is a system that measures the distances from the satellites that are in path
around the Earth.

 By knowing the distance from the satellites, it is possible to calculate the

position on the Earth’s surface.
 The satellite sends all the timing and position information to the receiver so the
receiver knows when the message was sent and also the receiver is able
 To calculate the distance from the satellite about their position.
 The satellite contains an atomic clock so that the satellite sends the timing
information to the receiver that is very accurate.

69
3. WRITE A NOTE ON FOLLOWING COMMUNICATION
DEVICES:

MODEM
 Converting digital signal into analog is called modulation and the reverse
process that is converting analog signal into digital signals is called
demodulation.
 The word “MODEM” comes from the term modulation-demodulation
 Computer can store & transmit data digitally while our telephone lines can
transmit data in analog signals.
 When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital
devices, two modems are required, one near each digital device.
 The analog signal is transmitted through the telephone line which is converted
into digital by modem.
 To connect a computer network that are at distant location by using telephone
line then modems must be used at both ends to do the modulation &
demodulations.
 The modem is an essential piece of hardware for any application in which two
digital devices want to communicate over an analog transmission channel.
 Different capacity modems are available according to different data transfer
rate.

BLUETOOTH
 Bluetooth is the technology using short range radio links, intended to replace
the cables connecting portable/fixed electronic devices.
 By using Bluetooth, the users can have all mobile and fixed computer devices
can be totally coordinated.
 The standard defines a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to
communicate with each other and minimal user efforts.
 This technology offers wireless access to LANs, PSTN, the mobile phone network
and the internet.
 Bluetooth technology use license-free 2.4GHz frequency band.
 You can connect wireless device up to 10 meter.
 The main advantage of Bluetooth is it can able to simultaneously handle both
data & voice transmissions.
 Bluetooth is a radio based wireless technology which allows devices to share
information over a maximum range of 10 meters.
 WI-FI
 Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity.
 It is used to define any of the wireless technology in the IEEE 802.11.
 It is useful to get internet access.
 It’s a wireless way to handle networking.
 It is also known as 802.11 networking or wireless networking.
 It provides the facility to connect computers anywhere in your home office
without need of physical connection.
 Wi-Fi allows connecting the computers within up to 100 feet area.
 Wi-Fi network uses radio technologies called IEEE 802.11 which provides fast,
secure & reliable wireless connectivity.
 Wi-Fi setup contains one or more access points & one or more clients.
 The Wi-Fi standard leaves connection criteria & roaming totally open to the
client.
 Wi-Fi transmit in the air; it has some properties as a non-switched wired
Ethernet network therefore collisions can occur.
 Wi-Fi cannot do collision detection.
 MS Word Practical’s
1. Bookmark

Steps for Bookmark

1. Add a bookmark: Select the text or object that you want to bookmark.
2. Click the Insert tab, then Bookmark. Type a name for your bookmark,
without spaces.
3. Click Add. Go to a bookmark:
4. Click the Insert tab, then Bookmark. Click the name of the bookmark you
want to go to.
5. Click Go To. ...
6. Click the Insert tab, then Bookmark.

2. Find and replace

Steps for Find and replace

Select Replace or press Ctrl + H. ...

In the Find what box, type the text you want to search for.
Select Find Next to see where the text appears in your file. ...
In the Replace with box, type the text you want.
Select Replace to change the text or select Replace All to change all instances of
this text in your file.

3. How to Protect Document/file in MS Word

Steps to protect our document.

1. Go to office button

2. Select Save as option

3. Go to tools option

4. Click on General option

5. Then give password to open and password to modify according to your choice.

6. Finally click on save button

To remove password and unsecure file Steps are

1. Go to office button

2. Select Save as option

3. Go to tools option

4. Click on General option

5. Then give remove the password from the dialogue box.

6. Finally click on save button

4. Hyperlink

1. Select the text that you want to turn into a hyperlink.

2. On the Insert tab group on the ribbon, select Link. ...
3. On the right side of the dialog box, select This Document. ...
4. Choose the heading or file you want to link to and select OK.
5. Optionally, click the newly created link to test it.

5. Macro
Steps

1. Click View > Macros > Record Macro.

2. Type a name for the macro.
3. Select Keyboard
4. Give shortcut for macro
5. Start Recording
6. Stop recording.
7. To run your macro when you press a keyboard shortcut, click Keyboard.

With the help of button

1. Click View > Macros > Record Macro.

2. Type a name for the macro
3. Select macro button
4. Add macro button
5. Macro button appear on the tool bar
6. Start recording
7. Stop recording
8. Click macro button to get recorded text.

6. Insert picture and write message on it

Steps
Insert picture according to your choice
Unselect the picture
Go to insert option and select text box
Write message on it
To remove background and border
Go to format and then click on No fill to remove background color.
Then go to shape outline which is also presented in format option and click on No outline.
FORMATTING

What is Formatting in MS Word?

By dividing material into parts and giving them headers, emphasising essential
phrases or concepts using bold, italics, or lists, and generating a strong first
impression, formatting also increases the reader's accessibility to the content
(professional look and feel, appropriate font choice for the document type).

Word documents may be made legible and presentable by formatting them. The
formatting options in Microsoft Word include the Format menu and Formatting
toolbar. Three different character formatting options are available in Word
documents: individual character forms, which include font, font size, bold, italic,
underlining, strikethrough, subscript, and superscript formatting options, as well
as font colour and highlight colour.
Character Formatting
Character formatting in MS Word is the term for formatting you apply to text. You
may apply three different character formatting styles in Word documents: Font,
font size, bold, italic, underline, strikethrough, subscript, superscript, font colour,
and highlight colour in individual character formats.

To apply character formatting in MS Word, the following should be used:

 The document's text should be selected.
 To access the Font dialogue box, select Format Font.
 Choose the necessary font from the Font list to change the font.
 Choose the necessary font style from the Font style list to alter the font style.
 Choose the appropriate font size from the Size list to alter the font size.
 Choose the desired font colour from the Font colour drop-down list to alter the
font colour.
 Choose the necessary underline style from the Underline style drop-down list to
determine the underlining style.
 Choose the necessary underline colour from the Underline colour drop-down list
to determine the underline colour.
 Select the check box for the specific effect, such as shadow from the Effects
section, if you wish to apply it to the text.
 Click the Preview area to see the text preview.

Use the Format Painter

1. Select the text or graphic that has the formatting that you want to copy.
2. On the Home tab, select. Format Painter in the Clipboard group.
3. The cursor changes to a. paintbrush icon.
4. Use the brush to paint over a selection of text or graphics to apply the
formatting. ...
5. To stop formatting, press ESC.
7. Mail merge

What is Mail Merge?

Mail merge is a feature in data processing applications that automates the process of sending a
similar letter, email, or document to multiple recipients that is personalized to each. It enables
connecting a single template with a data source that contains information about the recipient’s
name, mailing address, email, and other predefined data collected by the sender.

1. Create a Word document.

2. Choose what kind of merge you want to run. ...
3. Select the recipients. ...
4. Connect Excel spreadsheet and Word document. ...
5. Refine the recipient list. ...
6. Add Address Block and Greeting Line. ...
7. Insert merge fields. ...
8. Preview the results.

9. Header and Footer in MS Word

Go to Insert > Header & Footer. Add or header or footer text. Use the Options menu for
additional customization. To exit, select Close Header and Footer or press Esc.

10. FOOT NOTE AND ENDNOTE

Insert a Footnote or Endnote- Click the References tab - From the Footnotes group,
choose either the Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote. - By pressing Shift+F5 will return you
to the last place you were in the document (if the cursors last place was the Footnote or
Endnote superscript number you should return there.
 What is Virus and its Types.
1. Trojans
A Trojan (or Trojan Horse) disguises itself as legitimate software with the purpose of tricking you
into executing malicious software on your computer.
2. Spyware
Spyware invades your computer and attempts to steal your personal information such as credit card
or banking information, web browsing data, and passwords to various accounts.
3. Adware
Adware is unwanted software that displays advertisements on your screen. Adware collects personal
information from you to serve you with more personalized ads.
4. Rootkits
Rootkits enable unauthorized users to gain access to your computer without being detected.
5. Ransomware
Ransomware is designed to encrypt your files and block access to them until a ransom is paid.
6. Worms
A worm replicates itself by infecting other computers that are on the same network. They’re designed
to consume bandwidth and interrupt networks.

4. PROTECTION FROM VIRUS.

 You can protect system against virus with a few simple steps.
o Write protected your floppy when suing them on the other computer.
o Remove floppy while booting.
o Install software from original write- protected disks.
o Use secure operating system like UNIX
o Do not install pirated software.
o Scans files downloaded from the internet.
o Scan your system regularly if you continue using internet.
o Use good antivirus program to scan removable devices as well as system.
o Do not open attachments who contains an executable files.
o Do not open spam or junk mails
o Prepare a reuse disk with critical system files. Probably it should
bootable.
Practical based points
1. Alignment is used to move position of the text.
2. Format painter is used to get readymade formatting.
3. Bold tool is used to make your text bold.
4. Bullets are used to numbering the text.
5. Underline tool is used to underline the text.
6. Line Spacing option is used to provide space between two Lines.
7. Formatting means to give some style to our text.
8. Clear formatting option is used to clear overall formatting and make it normal.

Shortcut keys
Word shortcut keys
 Ctrl + A -- Select all contents of the page.
 Ctrl + B -- Bold highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + C -- Copy selected text.
 Ctrl + X -- Cut selected text.
 Ctrl + N -- Open new/blank document.
 Ctrl + O -- Open document.
 Ctrl + P -- Open the print document
 Ctrl+ L- Left alignment
 Ctrl+ E--- Centre Alignment
 Ctrl + R-- Right Alignment
 Ctrl + J--- Justify the text
 Ctrl + S--- Save the document
 Computer Network Types
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
 PAN(Personal Area Network)
o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline
Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as
a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers,
computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
o
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 oA Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last
mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Privatenetwork: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network
is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the
branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The
internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.
o Centralizeddata: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to
buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers
get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application
like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o Highbandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the
productivity of our company.
 Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject
the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer
network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing
scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o Aninterconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing.
The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An
extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other
computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection
to the external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main
aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the
organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The
information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be accessed
by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to
another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and distributes
the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and

Brouter)

Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that
allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another. For example
Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to amplifies (i.e., regenerates) the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy
it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength.
It is a 2-port device.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs
cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision
domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to
find out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the
signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used
to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the active
hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be
used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities. They also
provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic
passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also
used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single
output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source station and
the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special frame
called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to the
destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a
large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The
switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not
forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other
words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The
router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.
The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work
upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can
operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.

7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge
and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is
capable of routing packets across networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local
area network traffic.

8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to
the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the
chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the
computer and the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the
physical and data link layers of the network model.
 OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies standards
for communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. The OSI has been
developed by the International Organization For Standardization and it is 7 layer architecture.
Each layer of OSI has different functions and each layer has to follow different protocols. The 7
layers are as follows:
 Physical Layer
 Data link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer

Network Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities can
communicate across the network and there exists a different protocol defined at each layer of
the OSI model. A few such protocols are TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, FTP, and so on.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Function: The foundational protocol suite of the internet, enabling reliable communication.
Components:
TCP: Ensures data is delivered reliably and in order.
IP: Routes data packets to their destination based on IP addresses.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS
Function: The protocols used for transmitting web pages.
HTTP: Unsecured communication.
HTTPS: Secured communication using SSL/TLS encryption.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Function: Protocol for sending email.
Components: Works with other protocols like POP3 and IMAP for email retrieval.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Function: Protocol for transferring files between computers.
Components: Includes commands for uploading, downloading, and managing files on a
remote server.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Function: Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.
Components: Reduces manual configuration and IP address conflicts.
Domain Name System (DNS)
Function: Translates human-friendly domain names into IP addresses.
Components: Ensures seamless navigation on the internet.
Unique Identifiers of Network
Hostname: Each device in the network is associated with a unique device name known as
Hostname. Type “hostname” in the command prompt(Administrator Mode) and press ‘Enter’,
this displays the hostname of your machine.
 Port Types Range

Well known Ports 0 – 1023

Registered Ports 1024 – 49151

HostName
Ephemeral Ports 49152 – 65535
IP Address (Internet Protocol
address): Also known as the
Logical Address, the IP Address is the network address of the system across the network. To
identify each device in the world-wide-web, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
assigns an IPV4 (Version 4) address as a unique identifier to each device on the Internet. The
length of an IPv4 address is 32 bits, hence, we have 232 IP addresses available. The length of
an IPv6 address is 128 bits.
In Windows Type “ipconfig” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the IP
address of the device. For Linux, Type “ifconfig” in the terminal and press ‘Enter’ this gives us
the IP address of the device.

MAC Address (Media Access Control address): Also known as physical address, the MAC
Address is the unique identifier of each host and is associated with its NIC (Network Interface
Card). A MAC address is assigned to the NIC at the time of manufacturing. The length of the
MAC address is: 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits Type “ipconfig/all” in the command prompt and
press ‘Enter’, this gives us the MAC address.

Port: A port can be referred to as a logical channel through which data can be sent/received to
an application. Any host may have multiple applications running, and each of these applications
is identified using the port number on which they are running.
A port number is a 16-bit integer, hence, we have 216 ports available which are categorized as
shown below:

List of Ports

Socket: The unique combination of IP address and Port number together is termed a Socket.
Other Related Concepts
DNS Server: DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS is basically a server that translates
web addresses or URLs (ex: www.google.com) into their corresponding IP addresses. We don’t
have to remember all the IP addresses of each and every website. The command ‘nslookup’
gives you the IP address of the domain you are looking for. This also provides information on
our DNS Server.

Domain IP Address

ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to convert an IP address to its
corresponding physical address(i.e., MAC Address). ARP is used by the Data Link Layer to
identify the MAC address of the Receiver’s machine.

RARP: RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. As the name suggests, it
provides the IP address of the device given a physical address as input. But RARP has become
obsolete since the time DHCP has come into the picture.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a critical component of computer networking. It converts
easily recognizable domain names, such as www.example.com, into numerical IP addresses
that computers use to identify each other on the network.

How DNS Works?

User Input: When a user enters a domain name in a browser, the system needs to find its IP
address.

DNS Query: The user’s device sends a DNS query to the DNS resolver.

Resolver Request: The DNS resolver checks its cache for the IP address. If not found, it
forwards the request to the root DNS server.

Root DNS Server: The root DNS server provides the address of the TLD (Top-Level Domain)
server for the specific domain extension (e.g., .com).

TLD DNS Server: The TLD server directs the resolver to the authoritative DNS server for the
actual domain.
 Response to User: The resolver stores the IP address in its cache and sends it to the user’s
device.

Access Website: With the IP address, the user’s device can access the desired website.

DNS works efficiently, translating user-friendly domain names into IP addresses, allowing
seamless navigation on the internet.

Network Security

Ensuring the security of a network is crucial to protect data and resources from unauthorized
access and attacks. Key aspects of network security include:
Firewalls: Devices or software that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on security rules.
Encryption: The process of encoding data to prevent unauthorized access. Commonly used in
VPNs, HTTPS, and secure email.
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Tools that monitor network traffic for suspicious activity
and potential threats.

Types of Network Topology



Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, and devices in a
computer network. It defines how these components are connected and interact with each other.
Understanding various types of network topologies helps in designing efficient and robust networks.
Common types include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. In this article, we are going to discuss different types of network topology their advantages
and disadvantages in detail.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is referred
to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

 Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and receiver. It is
the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other one is the
receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total number of
ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports required = N * (N-
1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total number of
dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through
dedicated channels or links.
  Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node
and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an
intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active
hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers
are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are
connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single
cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed
by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols are
used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A number of
repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some
data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes
to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token
Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.
Ring Topology

Operations of Ring Topology

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is to be
released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree
Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Tree Topology
 .
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

.
Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen
above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination of all
different types of networks.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling .
What is Network Protocol?
A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices
in the network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and
when it is being communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with each other,
irrespective of internal and structural differences.

How do Network Protocols Work?

It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by recognizing network
protocols. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the most widely used model, illustrates
how computer systems interact with one another over a network. The communication
mechanism between two network devices is shown by seven different layers in the OSI model.
Every layer in the OSI model works based on different network protocols. At every layer, one or
more protocols are there for network communication. To enable network-to-network
connections, the Internet Protocol (IP), for instance, routes data by controlling information like
the source and destination addresses of data packets. It is known as a network layer protocol.
Types of Network Protocols
In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses the OSI model. The OSI
model has a total of seven layers. Secured connections, network management, and network
communication are the three main tasks that the network protocol performs. The purpose of
protocols is to link different devices.
The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:
 Network Communication
 Network Management
 Network Security

1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so
crucial that it is not possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols formally
set out the rules and formats through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax,
semantics, error detection, synchronization, and authentication. Below mentioned are some
network communication protocol:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext between two or more
systems. HTTP works on a client-server model, most of the data sharing over the web is done
through using HTTP.
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced acknowledgment. It is a connection-
oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a connection between applications before sending any data.
It is used for communicating over a network. It has many applications such as emails, FTP,
streaming media, etc.

User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable message service. It adds
no flow control, reliability, or error-recovery functions. UPD is functional in cases where
reliability is not required. It is used when we want faster transmission, for multicasting and
broadcasting connections, etc.

Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)

BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets pass through the router in an independent
system one or more networks run by a single organization and connect to different networks. It
connects the endpoints of a LAN with other LANs and it also connects endpoints in different
LANs to one another.

Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)

ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical addresses to the physical addresses
acknowledged in a local network. For mapping and maintaining a correlation between these
logical and physical addresses a table known as ARP cache is used.

Internet Protocol(IP)
It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another over the internet. It is used
for addressing and routing data packets so that they can reach their destination.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)

it’s a protocol for network management and it’s used for the method of automating the process
of configuring devices on IP networks. A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and
various other configurational changes to devices on a network so they can communicate with
other IP networks. it also allows devices to use various services such as NTP, DNS, or any
other protocol based on TCP or UDP.
 2. Network Management

These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring,
maintaining, and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in communicating
these requirements across the network to ensure stable communication. Network management
protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections between a host and a client.
Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward operational information and
error messages. ICMP is used for reporting congestions, network errors, diagnostic purposes,
and timeouts.
Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)
It is a layer 7 protocol that is used for managing nodes on an IP network. There are three main
components in the SNMP protocol i.e., SNMP agent, SNMP manager, and managed device.
SNMP agent has the local knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a
form that is compatible with the SNMP manager. The manager presents data acquired from
SNMP agents, thus helping in monitoring network glitches, and network performance, and
troubleshooting them.
Gopher
It is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some description for
easy management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are arranged on a remote
computer in a stratified manner. Gopher is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.
File Transfer Protocol(FTP)
FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or from a host computer, it allows
users to download files, programs, web pages, and other things that are available on other
services.

Post Office Protocol(POP3)

It is a protocol that a local mail client uses to get email messages from a remote email server
over a TCP/IP connection. Email servers hosted by ISPs also use the POP3 protocol to hold
and receive emails intended for their users. Eventually, these users will use email client
software to look at their mailbox on the remote server and to download their emails. After the
email client downloads the emails, they are generally deleted from the servers.

Telnet
It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer program and to use it i.e., it
is designed for remote connectivity. Telnet creates a connection between a host machine and a
remote endpoint to enable a remote session.