PLATEAU STATEUNIVERSITY (PLASU), BOKKOS

OPERATING SYSTEM II

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INTRODUCTION: An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer

hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. When you start using a
Computer System then it's the Operating System (OS) which acts as an interface between you and the
computer hardware. The operating system is really a low level Software which is categorized as a
System Software and supports a computer's basic functions, such as memory management, tasks
scheduling and controlling peripherals etc.

WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such
as disk drives and printers.

Generally, a Computer System consists of the following components:

 Computer Users: Are the users who use the overall computer system.

 Application Softwares: Are the softwares which users use directly to perform different
activities. These softwares are simple and easy to use like Browsers, Word, Excel, different
Editors, Games etc. These are usually written in high-level languages, such as Python, Java
and C++.

 System Softwares:Are the softwares which are more complex in nature and they are more
near to computer hardware. These software are usually written in low-level languages like
assembly language and includes Operating Systems (Microsoft Windows, macOS, and
Linux), Compiler, and Assembler etc.

 Computer Hardware includes Monitor, Keyboard, CPU, Disks, Memory, etc.

So now let's put it in simple words:

If we consider a Computer Hardware as a body of the Computer System, then we can say an
Operating System is its soul which brings it alive i.e. operational. We can never use a Computer
System if it does not have an Operating System installed on it.

EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

There are plenty of Operating Systems available in the market which include paid and unpaid (Open
Source). Following are the examples of the few most popular Operating Systems:

 Windows: This is one of the most popular and commercial operating systems developed and
marketed by Microsoft. It has different versions in the market like Windows 8, Windows 10
etc. and most of them are paid.

 Linux This is a Unix based and the most loved operating system first released on September
17, 1991 by Linus Torvalds. Today, it has 30+ variants available like Fedora, OpenSUSE,
CentOS, Ubuntu etc. Most of them are available free of charges though you can have their
enterprise versions by paying a nominal license fee.

 MacOS This is again a kind of Unix operating system developed and marketed by Apple Inc.
since 2001.

 iOS This is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its
mobile devices like iPhone and iPad etc.

 Android This is a mobile Operating System based on a modified version of the Linux kernel
and other open source software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets.

Some other old but popular Operating Systems include Solaris, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

The following are some of important functions of an operating System which we will look in more
details later:

 Process Management

 I/O Device Management

 File Management

 Network Management

 Main Memory Management

 Secondary Storage Management

  Security Management

 Command Interpreter System

 Control over system performance

 Job Accounting

 Error Detection and Correction

 Coordination between other software and users

 Many more other important tasks

BRIEF HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating systems have been evolving through the years. In the 1950s, computers were limited to
running one program at a time like a calculator, but later in the following decades, computers began to
include more and more software programs, sometimes called libraries, that formed the basis for
today’s operating systems.

The first Operating System was created by General Motors in 1956 to run a single IBM mainframe
computer, its name was the IBM 704. IBM was the first computer manufacturer to develop operating
systems and distribute them in its computers in the 1960s.

There are few facts about Operating System evaluation:

 Stanford Research Institute developed the N-Line System (NLS) in the late 1960s, which was
the first operating system that resembled the desktop operating system we use today.

 Microsoft bought QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) in 1981 and branded it as
Microsoft Operating System (MS-DOS). As of 1994, Microsoft had stopped supporting
MS-DOS.

 Unix was developed in the mid-1960s by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, AT&T
Bell Labs, and General Electric as a joint effort. Initially it was named MULTICS, which
stands for Multiplexed Operating and Computing System.

 FreeBSD is also a popular UNIX derivative, originating from the BSD project at Berkeley. All
modern Macintosh computers run a modified version of FreeBSD (OS X).

 Windows 95 is a consumer-oriented graphical user interface-based operating system built on

top of MS-DOS. It was released on August 24, 1995 by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x
 family of operating systems.

 Solaris is a proprietary Unix operating system originally developed by Sun Microsystems in

1991. After the Sun acquisition by Oracle in 2010 it was renamed Oracle Solaris.

OVERVIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEM

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such
as disk drives and printers.

An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's hardware. The
software that contains the core components of the operating system is called the kernel.

The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (softwares) to interact with
a computer's hardware and to manage a system's hardware and software resources.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System,
VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like mobile
phones, personal computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.

DEFINATIONS

We can have a number of definitions of an Operating System. Let's go through few of them:

An Operating System is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as
scheduling tasks and controlling peripherals.

We can refine this definition as follows:

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following is another definition taken from Wikipedia:

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software resources,
and provides common services for computer programs.

ARCHITECTURE OF OPERATING SYSTEM

The following is the generic architecture diagram of an Operating System which is as follows:
OPERATING SYSTEM GENERATIONS

Operating systems have been evolving over the years. We can categorise this evaluation based on
different generations which is briefed below:

0TH GENERATION

The term 0th generation is used to refer to the period of development of computing when Charles
Babbage invented the Analytical Engine and later John Atanasoff created a computer in 1940. The
hardware component technology of this period was electronic vacuum tubes. There was no Operating
System available for this generation computer and computer programs were written in machine
language. This computers in this generation were inefficient and dependent on the varying
competencies of the individual programmer as operators.

FIRST GENERATION (1951-1956)

The first generation marked the beginning of commercial computing including the introduction of
Eckert and Mauchly’s UNIVAC I in early 1951, and a bit later, the IBM 701.

System operation was performed with the help of expert operators and without the benefit of an
operating system for a time though programs began to be written in higher level, procedure-oriented
languages, and thus the operator’s routine expanded. Later mono-programmed operating system was
developed, which eliminated some of the human intervention in running job and provided
programmers with a number of desirable functions. These systems still continued to operate under the
control of a human operator who used to follow a number of steps to execute a program.
Programming language like FORTRAN was developed by John W. Backus in 1956.

SECOND GENERATION (1956-1964)

The second generation of computer hardware was most notably characterised by transistors replacing
vacuum tubes as the hardware component technology. The first operating system GMOS was
developed by the IBM computer. GMOS was based on single stream batch processing system, because
it collects all similar jobs in groups or batches and then submits the jobs to the operating system using
a punch card to complete all jobs in a machine. Operating system is cleaned after completing one job
and then continues to read and initiates the next job in punch card.

Researchers began to experiment with multiprogramming and multiprocessing in their computing

services called the time-sharing system. A noteworthy example is the Compatible Time Sharing
System (CTSS), developed at MIT during the early 1960s.

THIRD GENERATION (1964-1979)

The third generation officially began in April 1964 with IBM’s announcement of its System/360
family of computers. Hardware technology began to use integrated circuits (ICs) which yielded
significant advantages in both speed and economy.

Operating system development continued with the introduction and widespread adoption of
multiprogramming. The idea of taking fuller advantage of the computer’s data channel I/O
capabilities continued to develop.

Another progress which leads to developing of personal computers in fourth generation is a new
development of minicomputers with DEC PDP-1. The third generation was an exciting time, indeed,
for the development of both computer hardware and the accompanying operating system.

FOURTH GENERATION (1979 – PRESENT)

The fourth generation is characterised by the appearance of the personal computer and the
workstation. The component technology of the third generation, was replaced by very large scale
integration (VLSI). Many Operating Systems which we are using today like Windows, Linux, MacOS
etc developed in the fourth generation.

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management

 Processor Management

 Device Management

 File Management

 Network Management

 Security

 Control over system performance

 Job accounting

 Error detecting aids

 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a
large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it must be in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for
memory management −

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in
use.

 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.

 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.

 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for
how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following
activities for processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
 known as traffic controller.

 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.

 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.

 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.

 Allocates the device in the efficient way.

 De-allocates devices.

File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain files and other directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known
as file system.

 Decides who gets the resources.

 Allocates the resources.

 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized

access to programs and data.

 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.

 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
  Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error detecting aids.

 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of

compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
system.

COMPONENTS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

There are various components of an Operating System to perform well defined tasks. Though most of
the Operating Systems differ in structure but logically they have similar components. Each component
must be a well-defined portion of a system that appropriately describes the functions, inputs, and
outputs.

There following are 8-components of an Operating System:

1. Process Management

2. I/O Device Management

3. File Management

4. Network Management

5. Main Memory Management

6. Secondary Storage Management

7. Security Management

8. Command Interpreter System

Following section explains all the above components in more detail:

Process Management

A process is program or a fraction of a program that is loaded in main memory. A process needs
certain resources including CPU time, Memory, Files, and I/O devices to accomplish its task. The
process management component manages the multiple processes running simultaneously on the
Operating System.
A program in running state is called a process.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management:

 Create, load, execute, suspend, resume, and terminate processes.

 Switch system among multiple processes in main memory.

 Provides communication mechanisms so that processes can communicate with each other

 Provides synchronization mechanisms to control concurrent access to shared data to keep

shared data consistent.

 Allocate/de-allocate resources properly to prevent or avoid deadlock situation.

I/O Device Management

One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices
from the user. I/O Device Management provides an abstract level of H/W devices and keep the details
from applications to ensure proper use of devices, to prevent errors, and to provide users with
convenient and efficient programming environment.

Following are the tasks of I/O Device Management component:

 Hide the details of H/W devices

 Manage main memory for the devices using cache, buffer, and spooling

 Maintain and provide custom drivers for each device.

File Management

File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system. Computers can store
information in several different physical forms; magnetic tape, disk, and drum are the most common
forms.

A file is defined as a set of correlated information and it is defined by the creator of the file. Mostly
files represent data, source and object forms, and programs. Data files can be of any type like
alphabetic, numeric, and alphanumeric.

A file is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its creator and user.

The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by managing mass storage device,
such as types and disks. Also files are normally organized into directories to ease their use. These
directories may contain files and other directories and so on.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:

 File creation and deletion

 Directory creation and deletion

 The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories

 Mapping files onto secondary storage

 File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media

Network Management

The definition of network management is often broad, as network management involves several
different components. Network management is the process of managing and administering a computer
network. A computer network is a collection of various types of computers connected with each other.

Network management comprises fault analysis, maintaining the quality of service, provisioning of
networks, and performance management.

Network management is the process of keeping your network healthy for an efficient communication
between different computers.

Following are the features of network management:

 Network administration

 Network maintenance

 Network operation

 Network provisioning

 Network security

Main Memory Management

Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository of quickly
accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices.

Main memory is a volatile storage device which means it loses its contents in the case of system
failure or as soon as system power goes down.
The main motivation behind Memory Management is to maximize memory utilization on the
computer system.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with memory
management:

 Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.

 Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.

 Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.

Secondary Storage Management

The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs, together with the
data they access, must be in main memory during execution. Since the main memory is too small to
permanently accommodate all data and program, the computer system must provide secondary storage
to backup main memory.

Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium, for both programs
and data. Most programs, like compilers, assemblers, sort routines, editors, formatters, and so on, are
stored on the disk until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and destination
of their processing.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management:

 Free space management

 Storage allocation

Disk scheduling

Security Management

The operating system is primarily responsible for all task and activities happen in the computer
system. The various processes in an operating system must be protected from each other’s activities.
For that purpose, various mechanisms which can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment,
cpu and other resources can be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper
authorization from the operating system.

Security Management refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or
users to the resources defined by a computer controls to be imposed, together with some means of
enforcement.

For example, memory addressing hardware ensure that a process can only execute within its own
address space. The timer ensure that no process can gain control of the CPU without relinquishing it.
Finally, no process is allowed to do it’s own I/O, to protect the integrity of the various peripheral
devices.

Command Interpreter System

One of the most important component of an operating system is its command interpreter. The
command interpreter is the primary interface between the user and the rest of the system.

Command Interpreter System executes a user command by calling one or more number of underlying
system programs or system calls.

Command Interpreter System allows human users to interact with the Operating System and provides
convenient programming environment to the users.

Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. A program which reads and
interprets control statements is automatically executed. This program is called the shell and few
examples are Windows DOS command window, Bash of Unix/Linux or C-Shell of Unix/Linux.

Other Important Activities

An Operating System is a complex Software System. Apart from the above mentioned components
and responsibilities, there are many other activities performed by the Operating System. Few of them
are listed below:

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized

access to programs and data.

 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.

 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.

 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error detecting aids.

 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of

compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
 systems.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving with
time. We will discuss some of the important types of operating systems which are most commonly
used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares
his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up
processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave
their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements
into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.

 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed
as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in
case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in
Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation.
That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the
command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small
portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been
modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.

 Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.

 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.

 Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are
referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at
another.

 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.

 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.

 Better service to the customers.

 Reduction of the load on the host computer.

 Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data,
users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the
network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a
network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows
Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.

 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.

 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.

 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the
system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the response
time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or
the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. A
real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will
fail. For example, scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard Real-Time Systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.

Soft Real-Time Systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and
retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time
systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea
exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES

An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

 It provides programs an environment to execute.

 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.

Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

 Program execution

 I/O operations

 File System manipulation

 Communication

 Error Detection

 Resource Allocation

 Protection

Program execution

Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like printer
spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process.

A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate, registers, OS
resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to program
management −

 Loads a program into memory.

 Executes the program.

 Handles program's execution.

 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.

 Provides a mechanism for process communication.

 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.

I/O Operation

An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers hide the
peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.

An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.

 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk (secondary
storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic
disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own properties like speed,
capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an operating system with
respect to file management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.

 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.

 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.

 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.

 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication

In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory,
peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in the
network.

The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between them

 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected
through a computer network.

 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by

Message Passing.

Error handling

Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory
hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error handling −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

Resource Management

In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles and
files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection

Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple processes,
the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.

Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users to the
resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating system
with respect to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.

 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.

PROPERTIES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

The following are the different properties of an Operating System.

1. Batch processing

2. Multitasking

3. Multiprogramming

4. Interactivity

5. Real Time System

6. Distributed Environment

7. Spooling

Batch processing

Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data together
in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities related to batch
processing −

 The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a
single unit.

 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual information.

 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.

 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets
copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.
ADVANTAGES

 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.

 Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished, without
any manual intervention.

DISADVANTAGES

 Difficult to debug program.

 A job could enter an infinite loop.

 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

Multitasking

Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between
them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is running.
An OS does the following activities related to multitasking −

 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an
immediate response.

 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes
multiple programs at a time.

 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.

 These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a
reasonable cost.
  A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to
provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.

 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.

 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either
finishes or needs to perform I/O.

 Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete.
During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.

 The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each action
or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for
each user.

 As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the
impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among
many users.

Multiprogramming

Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred as
multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming
increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.

The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.

 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.

 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.

 Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system
resources using memory management programs to ensure that the CPU is never idle, unless
there are no jobs to process.

ADVANTAGES

 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

DISADVANTAGES

 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

INTERACTIVITY

Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating system
does the following activities related to interactivity −

 Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

 Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.

 Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.

The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.

Real Time System

Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the following
activities related to real-time system activity.

 In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.

 The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure
correct performance.

Distributed Environment

A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer system.

An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −

 The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.

 The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own local
memory.

 The OS manages the communications between the processors. They communicate with each
other through various communication lines.

Spooling

Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to putting data
of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is accessible
to I/O devices.

An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −

 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.

 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while the
slower device catches up.
  Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O in
parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write data to
disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.

Advantages

 The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

 Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations for
another job.

OPERATING SYSTEM- PROCESSES

PROCESS

A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must progress in a

sequential fashion.

A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in the
system.

To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we execute this
program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program.

When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be divided into four
sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a process
inside main memory −

COMPONENT & DESCRIPTION

Stack: The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function parameters,
return address and local variables.

Heap: This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.

Text: This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter and the
contents of the processor's registers.

Data: This section contains the global and static variables.

PROGRAM

A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or millions of lines. A computer program is
usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language. For example, here is a simple
program written in C programming language −

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}

A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a
computer. When we compare a program with a process, we can conclude that a process is a dynamic
instance of a computer program.

A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A

collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are referred to as a software.

PROCESS LIFE CYCLE

When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may differ in different
operating systems, and the names of these states are also not standardized.

In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a time.

Start: This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.

Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting to have the
processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run. Process may come into this
state after Start state or while running it by but interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to some
other process.

Running: Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process state is
set to running and the processor executes its instructions.

Waiting: Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as waiting for
user input, or waiting for a file to become available.

Terminated or Exit: Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating
system, it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.
Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for every process.
The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all the information needed to keep
track of a process as listed below in the table −

Process State: The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or whatever.

Process privileges: This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.

Process ID: Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.

Pointer: A pointer to parent process.

Program Counter: Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be executed
for this process.

CPU registers: Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for running
state.

CPU Scheduling Information: Process priority and other scheduling information which is required
to schedule the process.

Memory management information: This includes the information of page table, memory limits,
Segment table depending on memory used by the operating system.

Accounting information: This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits,
execution ID etc.

IO status information: This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.

The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may contain different
information in different operating systems. Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB −

The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is deleted once the process
terminates.

OPERATING SYSTEM- PROCESS SCHEDULING

DEFINITION

The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the running
process from the CPU and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular strategy.

Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating systems. Such operating

systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time and the loaded
process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.

CATEGORIES OF SCHEDULING

There are two categories of scheduling:

 1. Non-preemptive: Here the resource can’t be taken from a process until the process completes
execution. The switching of resources occurs when the running process terminates and moves
to a waiting state.

2. Preemptive: Here the OS allocates the resources to a process for a fixed amount of time.
During resource allocation, the process switches from running state to ready state or from
waiting state to ready state. This switching occurs as the CPU may give priority to other
processes and replace the process with higher priority with the running process.

Process Scheduling Queues

The OS maintains all Process Control Blocks (PCBs) in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS
maintains a separate queue for each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in the same
execution state are placed in the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is
unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.

The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues −

 Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.

 Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.

 Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device
constitute this queue.

The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.). The OS
scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and run queues which can only have
one entry per processor core on the system; in the above diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.

Two-State Process Model

Two-state process model refers to running and non-running states which are described below −

Running: When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in the running state.

Not Running: Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for their turn to execute. Each
entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process. Queue is implemented by using linked list. Use
of dispatcher is as follows. When a process is interrupted, that process is transferred in the waiting
queue. If the process has completed or aborted, the process is discarded. In either case, the dispatcher
then selects a process from the queue to execute.

Schedulers

Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in various ways. Their main
task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to decide which process to run.
Schedulers are of three types −

 Long-Term Scheduler

 Short-Term Scheduler

 Medium-Term Scheduler

Long Term Scheduler

It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which programs are admitted to
the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue and loads them into memory for
execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling.

The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O bound and
processor bound. It also controls the degree of multiprogramming. If the degree of multiprogramming
is stable, then the average rate of process creation must be equal to the average departure rate of
processes leaving the system.

On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available or minimal. Time-sharing operating
systems have no long term scheduler. When a process changes the state from new to ready, then there
is use of long-term scheduler.

Short Term Scheduler

It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase system performance in accordance
with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready state to running state of the process. CPU
scheduler selects a process among the processes that are ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of
them.

Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which process to execute next.
Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.

Medium Term Scheduler

Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the processes from the memory. It reduces
the degree of multiprogramming. The medium-term scheduler is in-charge of handling the swapped
out-processes.

A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. A suspended processes cannot
make any progress towards completion. In this condition, to remove the process from memory and
make space for other processes, the suspended process is moved to the secondary storage. This
process is called swapping, and the process is said to be swapped out or rolled out. Swapping may be
necessary to improve the process mix.

Comparison among Scheduler

S.N. Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler

It is a process swapping
1 It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler
scheduler.
Speed is lesser than short term Speed is fastest among other Speed is in between both short
2
scheduler two and long term scheduler.
It controls the degree of It provides lesser control over It reduces the degree of
3
multiprogramming degree of multiprogramming multiprogramming.
It is almost absent or minimal It is also minimal in time It is a part of Time sharing
4
in time sharing system sharing system systems.
5 It selects processes from pool It selects those processes which It can re-introduce the process
 and loads them into memory are ready to execute into memory and execution can
for execution be continued.

CONTEXT SWITCHING

A context switching is the mechanism to store and restore the state or context of a CPU in Process
Control block so that a process execution can be resumed from the same point at a later time. Using
this technique, a context switcher enables multiple processes to share a single CPU. Context switching
is an essential part of a multitasking operating system features.

When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to execute another, the state from
the current running process is stored into the process control block. After this, the state for the process
to run next is loaded from its own PCB and used to set the PC, registers, etc. At that point, the second
process can start
executing.

Figure 1
 Figure 2

Context switches are computationally intensive since register and memory state must be saved and
restored. To avoid the amount of context switching time, some hardware systems employ two or more
sets of processor registers. When the process is switched, the following information is stored for later
use.

 Program Counter

 Scheduling information

 Base and limit register value

 Currently used register

  Changed State

 I/O State information

 Accounting information

OPERATING SYSTEM SCHEDULING ALGORITHM

A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be assigned to the CPU based on particular
scheduling algorithms. There are six popular process scheduling algorithms which we are going to
discuss in this chapter −

 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

 Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling

 Priority Scheduling

 Shortest Remaining Time

 Round Robin(RR) Scheduling

 Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling

These algorithms are either non-preemptive or preemptive. Non-preemptive algorithms are

designed so that once a process enters the running state, it cannot be preempted until it completes its
allotted time, whereas the preemptive scheduling is based on priority where a scheduler may preempt
a low priority running process anytime when a high priority process enters into a ready state.

FIRST COME FIRST SERVE (FCFS)

As the name suggests, the process coming first in the ready state will be executed first by the CPU
irrespective of the burst time or the priority. This is implemented by using the First In First Out
(FIFO) queue. So, what happens is that, when a process enters into the ready state, then the PCB of
that process will be linked to the tail of the queue and the CPU starts executing the processes by taking
the process from the head of the queue. If the CPU is allocated to a process then it can't be taken back
until it finishes the execution of that process.

Example:
 Process Arrival time Burst time

P1 0 ms 18 ms

P2 2 ms 7 ms

P3 2 ms 10 ms

Gantt chart

P1 P2 P3

0 ms 18 ms 18 ms 25 ms 25 ms 35 ms

In the above example, you can see that we have three processes P1, P2, and P3, and they are coming
in the ready state at 0ms, 2ms, and 2ms respectively. So, based on the arrival time, the process P1 will
be executed for the first 18ms. After that, the process P2 will be executed for 7ms and finally, the
process P3 will be executed for 10ms. One thing to be noted here is that if the arrival time of the
processes is the same, then the CPU can select any process.

---------------------------------------------
| Process | Waiting Time | Turnaround Time |
---------------------------------------------
| P1 | 0ms | 18ms |
| P2 | 16ms | 23ms |
| P3 | 23ms | 33ms |
---------------------------------------------
Total waiting time: (0 + 16 + 23) = 39ms
Average waiting time: (39/3) = 13ms

Total turnaround time: (18 + 23 + 33) = 74ms

Average turnaround time: (74/3) = 24.66ms

Advantages of FCFS:

 It is the most simple scheduling algorithm and is easy to implement.

Disadvantages of FCFS:
  This algorithm is non-preemptive so you have to execute the process fully and after that other
processes will be allowed to execute.

 Throughput is not efficient.

 FCFS suffers from the Convey effect i.e. if a process is having very high burst time and it is
coming first, then it will be executed first irrespective of the fact that a process having very
less time is there in the ready state.

SHORTEST JOB FIRST (NON-PREEMPTIVE)

In the FCFS, we saw if a process is having a very high burst time and it comes first then the other
process with a very low burst time have to wait for its turn. So, to remove this problem, we come with
a new approach i.e. Shortest Job First or SJF.

In this technique, the process having the minimum burst time at a particular instant of time will be
executed first. It is a non-preemptive approach i.e. if the process starts its execution then it will be
fully executed and then some other process will come.

Example:

Process Arrival time Burst time

P1 3 ms 5 ms

P2 0 ms 4 ms

P3 4 ms 2 ms

P4 5 ms 4 ms

Gantt Chart

P2 P3 P4 P1

0 ms 4 ms 4 ms 6 ms 6 ms 10 ms 10 ms 15 ms
In the above example, at 0ms, we have only one process i.e. process P2, so the process P2 will be
executed for 4ms. Now, after 4ms, there are two new processes i.e. process P1 and process P3. The
burst time of P1 is 5ms and that of P3 is 2ms. So, amongst these two, the process P3 will be executed
first because its burst time is less than P1. P3 will be executed for 2ms. Now, after 6ms, we have two
processes with us i.e. P1 and P4 (because we are at 6ms and P4 comes at 5ms). Amongst these two,
the process P4 is having a less burst time as compared to P1. So, P4 will be executed for 4ms and after
that P1 will be executed for 5ms. So, the waiting time and turnaround time of these processes will be:

---------------------------------------------
| Process | Waiting Time | Turnaround Time |
---------------------------------------------
| P1 | 7ms | 12ms |
| P2 | 0ms | 4ms |
| P3 | 0ms | 2ms |
| P4 | 1ms | 5ms |
---------------------------------------------
Total waiting time: (7 + 0 + 0 + 1) = 8ms
Average waiting time: (8/4) = 2ms

Total turnaround time: (12 + 4 + 2 + 5) = 23ms

Average turnaround time: (23/4) = 5.75ms

Advantages of SJF (non-preemptive):

 Short processes will be executed first.

Disadvantages of SJF (non-preemptive):

 It may lead to starvation if only short burst time processes are coming in the ready state

SHORTEST JOB FIRST (PREEMPTIVE)

This is the preemptive approach of the Shortest Job First algorithm. Here, at every instant of time, the
CPU will check for some shortest job. For example, at time 0ms, we have P1 as the shortest process.
So, P1 will execute for 1ms and then the CPU will check if some other process is shorter than P1 or
not. If there is no such process, then P1 will keep on executing for the next 1ms and if there is some
process shorter than P1 then that process will be executed. This will continue until the process gets
executed.

This algorithm is also known as Shortest Remaining Time First i.e. we schedule the process based on
the shortest remaining time of the processes.

Example:

Process Arrival time Burst time

P1 1 ms 7 ms

P2 1 ms 8 ms

P3 2 ms 7 ms

P4 3 ms 3 ms

Gantt Chart

P1 P4 P1 P3 P2

13 36 6 10 10 17 17 25

In the above example, at time 1ms, there are two processes i.e. P1 and P2. Process P1 is having burst
time as 6ms and the process P2 is having 8ms. So, P1 will be executed first. Since it is a preemptive
approach, so we have to check at every time quantum. At 2ms, we have three processes i.e. P1(5ms
remaining), P2(8ms), and P3(7ms). Out of these three, P1 is having the least burst time, so it will
continue its execution. After 3ms, we have four processes i.e P1(4ms remaining), P2(8ms), P3(7ms),
and P4(3ms). Out of these four, P4 is having the least burst time, so it will be executed. The process
P4 keeps on executing for the next three ms because it is having the shortest burst time. After 6ms, we
have 3 processes i.e. P1(4ms remaining), P2(8ms), and P3(7ms). So, P1 will be selected and executed.
This process of time comparison will continue until we have all the processes executed. So, waiting
and turnaround time of the processes will be:

---------------------------------------------
| Process | Waiting Time | Turnaround Time |
---------------------------------------------
| P1 | 3ms | 9ms |
| P2 | 16ms | 24ms |
| P3 | 8ms | 15ms |
| P4 | 0ms | 3ms |
---------------------------------------------
Total waiting time: (3 + 16 + 8 + 0) = 27ms
Average waiting time: (27/4) = 6.75ms

Total turnaround time: (9 + 24 + 15 + 3) = 51ms

Average turnaround time: (51/4) = 12.75ms

Advantages of SJF (preemptive):

 Short processes will be executed first.

Disadvantages of SJF (preemptive):

 It may result in starvation if short processes keep on coming.

ROUND-ROBIN

In this approach of CPU scheduling, we have a fixed time quantum and the CPU will be allocated to a
process for that amount of time only at a time. For example, if we are having three process P1, P2, and
P3, and our time quantum is 2ms, then P1 will be given 2ms for its execution, then P2 will be given
2ms, then P3 will be given 2ms. After one cycle, again P1 will be given 2ms, then P2 will be given
2ms and so on until the processes complete its execution.

It is generally used in the time-sharing environments and there will be no starvation in case of the
round-robin.

Example:

Process Arrival time Burst time

P1 0 ms 10 ms

P2 0 ms 5 ms

P3 0 ms 8 ms
Gantt Chart

P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3

12 24 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 12

P1 P2 P3 P1 P3 P1

12 14 14 15 15 17 17 19 19 21 21 23

In the above example, every process will be given 2ms in one turn because we have taken the time
quantum to be 2ms. So process P1 will be executed for 2ms, then process P2 will be executed for 2ms,
then P3 will be executed for 2 ms. Again process P1 will be executed for 2ms, then P2, and so on. The
waiting time and turnaround time of the processes will be:

---------------------------------------------
| Process | Waiting Time | Turnaround Time |
---------------------------------------------
| P1 | 13ms | 23ms |
| P2 | 10ms | 15ms |
| P3 | 13ms | 21ms |
---------------------------------------------
Total waiting time: (13 + 10 + 13) = 36ms
Average waiting time: (36/3) = 12ms

Total turnaround time: (23 + 15 + 21) = 59ms

Average turnaround time: (59/3) = 19.66ms

Advantages of round-robin:

 No starvation will be there in round-robin because every process will get chance for its
execution.
  Used in time-sharing systems.

Disadvantages of round-robin:

 We have to perform a lot of context switching here, which will keep the CPU idle

PRIORITY SCHEDULING (NON-PREEMPTIVE)

In this approach, we have a priority number associated with each process and based on that priority
number the CPU selects one process from a list of processes. The priority number can be anything. It
is just used to identify which process is having a higher priority and which process is having a lower
priority. For example, you can denote 0 as the highest priority process and 100 as the lowest priority
process. Also, the reverse can be true i.e. you can denote 100 as the highest priority and 0 as the
lowest priority.

Example:

Process Arrival time Burst time Priority

P1 0 ms 5 ms 1

P2 1 ms 3 ms 2

P3 2 ms 8 ms 1

P4 3 ms 6 ms 3

NOTE: In this example, we are taking higher priority number as higher priority

Gannt Chart

0 ms 5 ms 5 ms 11ms 11 ms 14 ms 14 ms 22 ms

In the above example, at 0ms, we have only one process P1. So P1 will execute for 5ms because we
are using non-preemption technique here. After 5ms, there are three processes in the ready state i.e.
process P2, process P3, and process P4. Out to these three processes, the process P4 is having the
highest priority so it will be executed for 6ms and after that, process P2 will be executed for 3ms
followed by the process P1. The waiting and turnaround time of processes will be:
---------------------------------------------
| Process | Waiting Time | Turnaround Time |
---------------------------------------------
| P1 | 0ms | 5ms |
| P2 | 10ms | 13ms |
| P3 | 12ms | 20ms |
| P4 | 2ms | 8ms |
---------------------------------------------
Total waiting time: (0 + 10 + 12 + 2) = 24ms
Average waiting time: (24/4) = 6ms

Total turnaround time: (5 + 13 + 20 + 8) = 46ms

Average turnaround time: (46/4) = 11.5ms

Advantages of priority scheduling (non-preemptive):

 Higher priority processes like system processes are executed first.

Disadvantages of priority scheduling (non-preemptive):

 It can lead to starvation if only higher priority process comes into the ready state.

 If the priorities of more two processes are the same, then we have to use some other scheduling
algorithm.

MULTILEVELQUEUE SCHEDULING

In multilevel queue scheduling, we divide the whole processes into some batches or queues and then
each queue is given some priority number. For example, if there are four processes P1, P2, P3, and P4,
then we can put process P1 and P4 in queue1 and process P2 and P3 in queue2. Now, we can assign
some priority to each queue. So, we can take the queue1 as having the highest priority and queue2 as
the lowest priority. So, all the processes of the queue1 will be executed first followed by queue2.
Inside the queue1, we can apply some other scheduling algorithm for the execution of processes of
queue1. Similar is with the case of queue2.

So, multiple queues for processes are maintained that are having common characteristics and each
queue has its own priority and there is some scheduling algorithm used in each of the queues.
Example:

Process Arrival time Burst time Queue

P1 0 ms 5 ms 1

P2 0 ms 3 ms 2

P3 0 ms 8 ms 2

P4 0 ms 6 ms 1

Gannt Chart

P1 P4 P2 P3 P2 P3

05 5 11 11 13 13 15 15 16 16 22

In the above example, we have two queues i.e. queue1 and queue2. Queue1 is having higher priority
and queue1 is using the FCFS approach and queue2 is using the round-robin approach (time quantum
= 2ms).

Since the priority of queue1 is higher, so queue1 will be executed first. In the queue1, we have two
processes i.e. P1 and P4 and we are using FCFS. So, P1 will be executed followed by P4. Now, the
job of the queue1 is finished. After this, the execution of the processes of queue2 will be started by
using the round-robin approach.

MULTILEVELFEEDBACK QUEUE SCHEDULING

Multilevel feedback queue scheduling is similar to multilevel queue scheduling but here the processes
can change their queue also. For example, if a process is in queue1 initially then after partial execution
of the process, it can go into some other queue.

In a multilevel feedback queue, we have a list of queues having some priority and the higher priority
queue is always executed first. Let's assume that we have two queues i.e. queue1 and queue2 and we
are using round-robin for these i.e. time quantum for queue1 is 2 ms and for queue2 is 3ms. Now, if a
process starts executing in the queue1 then if it gets fully executed in 2ms then it is ok, its priority will
not be changed. But if the execution of the process will not be completed in the time quantum of
queue1, then the priority of that process will be reduced and it will be placed in the lower priority
queue i.e. queue2 and this process will continue.

While executing a lower priority queue, if a process comes into the higher priority queue, then the
execution of that lower priority queue will be stopped and the execution of the higher priority queue
will be started. This can lead to starvation because if the process keeps on going into the higher
priority queue then the lower priority queue keeps on waiting for its turn.

MULTIPLE-LEVELQUEUES SCHEDULING

Multiple-level queues are not an independent scheduling algorithm. They make use of other existing
algorithms to group and schedule jobs with common characteristics.

 Multiple queues are maintained for processes with common characteristics.

 Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.

 Priorities are assigned to each queue.

For example, CPU-bound jobs can be scheduled in one queue and all I/O-bound jobs in another queue.
The Process Scheduler then alternately selects jobs from each queue and assigns them to the CPU
based on the algorithm assigned to the queue.