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UNIT 2
SAMPLING DESIGN
AND
DATA COLLECTION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Meaning of sampling
1.3.1 Sampling Design
1.3.2 Characteristics of Sampling Design
1.4 Types of sample design.
1.5 Data in research
1.5.1 Importance of accuracy in Data Collection
1.5.2 Types of data
1.5.3 Methods of collecting primary data
1.5.4 Sources of secondary data
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 References/Bibliography
1.9 Suggested Readings
1.10 Terminal Questions

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of
observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a
larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed but may include
simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

2.2 Objectives
After reading this unit the learner will be able to:
 Understand the meaning of sampling
 Understand sampling Design
 Understand characteristics of Sampling Design
 Understand aims in selection a sample
 Understand the various types of sample design.
 Understand role of data in research
 Understand Types of data

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  Understand various methods of collecting primary data-observation,
interview and questionnaire
 Understand Sources of secondary data.

2.3 MEANING OF SAMPLING

As per Merriam Webster Dictionary it is the act, process, or technique of selecting a
representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population. Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis
in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population. The
methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis
being performed but may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

2.3.1 Sampling Design

This is identified as a fixed plan or system to enable a researcher to obtain data in smaller
sizes from parts of a larger population known as samples. It also includes the modules,
techniques or procedures to be used in identifying the items for the sample. Sample
design also defines the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the
sample. Sample design is determined before data is collected. The choice of determining
sampling design depends on the individual and the type of research undertaken.
Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate
for the research study.

2.3.2 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

1. Proportional: Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. This means
that the sample selected should be exactly or almost similar to the population it
represents I terms of data and characteristics.

2. Error Free: Sample design should reduce the probability of errors. The minimum
numbers of errors in any sample ensure correct data obtained and analyzed.

3. Budgeted: Sample design must be practical and be within the limits of funds
available for the research study.

4. No Bias: Sample design should be able to control systematic bias.

5. Generalization of Results: Sample should be such that the results of the sample
study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following
points:

i. Type of universe: The accuracy of the results in any study depends on how
clearly the universe or population of interest is defined. The universe can be

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Researching for Hospitality and Tourism Management BHM-503T
finite or infinite, depending on the number of items it contains. Clearly
definining the set of objects; in principle called the Universe, to be studied.
The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is
certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e.,
we do not have any idea about the total number of items. The total number of
employees in a hotel, the number of covers in a restaurant is example of finite
universes, whereas the number of guests arriving in a particular business
season, number of persons visiting a food festival, throwing of a dice etc. is
example of infinite universes.

ii. Sampling unit: The sampling unit can be anything that exists within the
population of interest. An assessment has to be taken with reference to a
sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be:

 A constructed unit such as Hotel, Restaurant, etc.,

 A social unit such as a college, community club, school, etc.
 An individual.
 A geographical one such as state, district, village, etc.,

iii. Source list: It is also known as ‗sampling frame‘ from which sample is to be
drawn. It contains the names of all items of a finite universe. If source list is
not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for
the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.

iv. Size: The sample size should be justified, not be excessively large nor it
should be too small. Preferably the sample size should be optimal which
fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and
flexibility and representative of the population to obtain dependable
outcomes. Population variance, population size, parameters of interest, and
budgetary constraints are some of the factors that impact the sample size.

This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to

constitute a sample which at times may be an important issue for a researcher.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. A larger
variance usually needs a bigger sample size to assure correct results. The
parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding
the size of the sample.

v. Consideration of interest: In determining the sample design, one must

consider the question of the specific population stricture which is of interest.
E.g. we may calculate the number of walk in guest‘s from total arrivals at a
hotel on daily basis to understand the proportion and then to leave an
optimum number of unreserved rooms everyday for such guest.

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 vi. Budgetary limitation: Funds available guide us to decide the size, variation
and quantum of samples. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-
probability sample.

vii. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample
he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the
items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample
design itself. An ideal design is the one that for a given sample size and for a
given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-I

1. Define sampling?

2. Write a note on ‗Characteristics of good sample design‘.

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2.4 TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the

samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population
equal chances of being selected. A core characteristic of non-probability sampling
techniques is that samples are selected based on the subjective judgment of the
researcher. It is also known as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment
sampling.

 With non-probability sampling methods, we do not know the probability that each
population element will be chosen, and/or we cannot be sure that each population
element has a non-zero chance of being chosen.

The choice of researcher is considered to be the topmost in priority. The sample

construction depends upon purposive selection i.e. deliberate and is such that it represents
the entire population in that smallest unit.

This offers the advantages of convenience and cost but the disadvantage is that non-
probability sampling methods do not allow the estimation of the extent to which sample
statistics are possibly varying from population parameters.

E.g. To study the average spending or average number of days stayed by tourists visiting
religious destinations the researcher has the freedom to choose destinations and state
them to be representative of all other religious destinations.

Probability sampling: This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that
every element of the population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected sample.
It‘s alternatively known as ‗random sampling‘ or ‗chance sampling‘. Selection of winner
of a lottery selected through mechanical process gives all ticket holders an equal chance
of winning.

 With probability sampling methods, each population element has a known (non-zero)
chance of being chosen for the sample.

A facility to measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from
a random sample by providing same chance to all options proves that random sampling
design is better than deliberate sampling design. The law of Statistical Regularity which
states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the
same composition and characteristics as the universe is truly applied here. This is the
reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a
representative sample.

a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample;
and all choices are independent of one another.
b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.

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Non-Probability Sampling Methods: Voluntary and convenience samples are two major
types discussed here. .

 Voluntary Sampling: This constitutes of people who have keen interest in the topic
of survey being conducted and are themselves getting involved to contribute as
respondents.

E.g. for a survey or online poll being conducted on a social site like Facebook attracts
volunteers with common interests and they participate in it.

 Convenience Sampling: A convenience sample consists of people who are easily

approachable and can be reached out to in shorter time.

E.g. To study the popularity of handmade products or traditional goods the researcher
may choose to visit a local fair where it is easy to reach out to buyers of such goods
and services.

Probability Sampling Methods: The main types of probability sampling methods are
simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and
systematic random sampling. The basic advantage of probability sampling methods is that
they assure that the sample chosen is representative of the population thereby ensuring
that the statistical conclusions stand valid.

 Simple random sampling. Simple random sampling refers to any sampling method
that has the following properties.

 The population consists of N objects.

 The sample consists of n objects.
 If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the sampling method
is called simple random sampling.

There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the lottery
method. Each of the N population members is assigned a unique number. The numbers
are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n
numbers. Population members having the selected numbers are included in the sample.

 Stratified sampling. With stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups,
based on some characteristic. Then, within each group, a probability sample (often a
simple random sample) is selected. In stratified sampling, the groups are
called strata.

E.g. For a survey carried our across a state the population may be divided age wise
into groups or strata, like infants, children, minors, adolescents, teenagers, adults, etc.
Within each stratum, we might randomly select survey respondents.

 Cluster sampling. With cluster sampling, every member of the population is assigned
to one, and only one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample of clusters is

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chosen, using a probability method (often simple random sampling). Only individuals
within sampled clusters are surveyed.

With stratified sampling, the sample includes elements from each stratum. With cluster
sampling, in contrast, the sample includes elements only from sampled clusters.

 Multistage Sampling: In this method of sampling, we select a sample by using

combinations of more than one sampling method.

 For example, in Stage 1, we might use cluster sampling to choose clusters from a
population. Then, in Stage 2, we might use simple random sampling to select a subset
of elements from each chosen cluster for the final sample.

 Systematic Random Sampling: This begins with creation of a list of each member of
the population. From the list, we randomly select the first sample element from the
first k elements on the population list. Thereafter, we select every kth element on the
list.

This method is different from simple random sampling since every possible sample of n
elements is not equally likely.

Problem: Reservation Manager is conducting a satisfaction survey, sampling from a list

of 10,000 new guests in various hotels. The list includes 2,500 guests from the Marriotts,
2,500 guests from the Marriott‘s, 2,500 guests from the Taj Hotels, 2,500 guests from the
ITC Group buyers, and 2,500 guests from the Best Western Group. He selects a sample of
400 room guests, by randomly sampling 100 guests of each brand.

Is this an example of a simple random sample?

a) Yes, because each guest in the sample was randomly sampled.

b) Yes, because each guest in the sample had an equal chance of being sampled.
c) Yes, because guest of each brand was equally represented in the sample.
d) No, because every possible 400 guest sample did not have an equal chance of being
chosen.
e) No, because the population consisted of purchasers of four different brands of hotels.

Solution

The correct answer is (D). A simple random sample requires that every sample of
size n (in this problem, n is equal to 400) has an equal chance of being selected. In this
problem, there was a 100 percent chance that the sample would include 100 guests of
each brand of hotel. There was zero percent chance that the sample would include, for
example, 99 Taj Guests, 101 Marriott Guests, 100 ITC Guests, and 100 Best Western
Guests. Thus, all possible samples of size 400 did not have an equal chance of being
selected; so this cannot be a simple random sample.

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The fact that each guest in the sample was randomly sampled is a necessary condition for
a simple random sample, but it is not sufficient. Similarly, the fact that each guest in the
sample had an equal chance of being selected is characteristic of a simple random sample,
but it is not sufficient. The sampling method in this problem used random sampling and
gave each guest an equal chance of being selected; but the sampling method was
actually stratified random sampling.

The fact that hotel guests of each of the brands were equally represented in the sample is
irrelevant to whether the sampling method was simple random sampling. Similarly, the
fact that population consisted of guests of different hotel brands is irrelevant.

2.5 DATA IN RESEARCH

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted

variables in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant
questions and evaluate outcomes. Data collection is a component of research in all fields
of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, and business. It is a
component of research in all fields of study including physical and social
sciences, humanities, and business.

While methods differ by discipline, the importance of collecting accurate and honest data
remains in place. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that allows
analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing and credible answers to the questions
that have been posed.

2.5.1 Importance of accuracy in Data Collection

 Despite the variation of the field of study or preference for defining data
(quantitative or qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the
integrity of research.
 Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or
newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the
likelihood of errors occurring.
 A formal data collection process is necessary as it ensures that the data gathered are
both defined and accurate and that subsequent decisions based on arguments
embodied in the findings are valid.
 The process provides both a baseline from which to measure and in certain cases an
indication of what to improve.

Consequences from improperly collected data include:

 Inability to answer research questions accurately;
 Inability to repeat and validate the study.
 distorted findings resulting in wasted resources

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 misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation
 compromising decisions for public policy
 causing harm to human participants and animal subjects

2.5.2 Types of Data

a) Primary Data: Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for
the purpose in mind. It means someone collected the data from the original source first
hand. Data collected this way is called primary data. The people who gather primary data
may be an authorized organization, investigator, enumerator or they may be just someone
with a clipboard. Those who gather primary data may have knowledge of the study and
may be motivated to make the study a success. These people are acting as a witness so
primary data is only considered as reliable as the people who gathered it.

b) Secondary Data: Refers to data which is collected by someone who is someone other
than the user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses,
information collected by government departments, organizational records and data that
was originally collected for other research purposes. Secondary data analysis can save
time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in the case
of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-quality databases that would be
unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition, analysts of
social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to
conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments.
However, secondary data analysis can be less useful in marketing research, as data may
be outdated or inaccurate.

2.5.3 Methods of Primary Data Collection

Primary data is collected by:

 Observation method
 Survey Method
 Contact Method
 Experimental method

OBSERVATION METHOD: This is commonly used in behavioral sciences. It is the

gathering of primary data by investigator‘s own direct observation of relevant people,
actions and situations without asking the respondent. E.g.
• A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on
cleanliness and customer service.
• A food service operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu
items prices, check portion sizes and consistency and observe point-of purchase
merchandising.

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• A restaurant evaluates possible new locations by checking out locations of competing
restaurants, traffic patterns and neighborhood conditions.

Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or are unable to
provide the responses. e.g. Observing numerous plates containing leftover / not eaten
portions for a particular menu item indicates that food is not satisfactory.

Types of Observation:
 Structured – for descriptive research
 Unstructured - for exploratory research
 Participant Observation
 Non- participant observation
 Disguised observation
Limitations: Because of these limitations, researchers often supplement observation with
survey research.
 Feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behavior and infrequent behavior
cannot be observed.
 Expensive.

SURVEY METHOD: This approach is most suited for gathering descriptive

information.
 Structured Surveys: Using formal lists of questions asked to all respondents in an
identical set.

 Unstructured Surveys: The interviewer probes the respondents and guides the
interview according to their answers. E.g. Debates on political issues on Television
Channels.
 Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviors and thoughts.
e.g. Why don‘t you eat at MacDonald?

 Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: ―What kind of people eat at
MacDonald‘s?‖
From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer avoids
MacDonald‘s. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

Advantages:
 Can be used to collect different kinds of information at same time.
 Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental method.

Limitations:
 Respondent‘s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about
things they consider private.

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 Respondents may refuse to share time showing to be busy.
 Respondents may try to please only by sharing positive responses.
 Respondents may be unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a
thought to what they do and why.
 Respondents may answer in order to look smart or well informed.

CONTACT METHODS: Mail Questionnaires:

Advantages:
 Can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.
 Respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail
questionnaire.
 No interviewer is involved to bias the respondent‘s answers.
 Convenient for respondent‘s who can answer when they have time.
 Good way to reach people who often travel.
Limitations:
 Not flexible.
 Take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview.
 Response rate is often very low.
 Researcher has no control over who answers.

b. Telephone Interviewing:
Advantages:
 Quick method
 More flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
 Depending on respondent‘s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
 Allows greater sample control
 Response rate tends to be higher than mail
Limitations:
 Cost per respondent higher
 Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
 Interviewer‘s manner of speaking may affect the respondent‘s answers
 Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
 Under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing

g. Personal Interviewing:
It is very flexible and can also be used to collect large amounts of information. Skilled
interviewers are able to keep the respondent attentive and clarify difficult questions in
case of a doubt. They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation
demands. Personal interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be
conducted fairly quickly.

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The responses, behavior and reactions can be put on record by the interviewer by making
the products readily available, displays at convenient locations, by use of advertisements
and packaging.

Types of Interviewing:
a. Intercept interviewing: It is an integral part of tourism research. It allows researcher
to reach known people in a shorter durations but at the same time it reaches out to
respondents whose details are not known. The interviewer has to make an effort to
gain attention and cooperation from respondents to assure apt responses. The
interviews can be conducted at different locations like residences, offices, public
spaces, shopping destinations etc. The interviewer uses own judgement to identify the
respondents depending on convenience and may also offer some compensations if the
interaction is prolonged.
Limitations:
 Interviewer may be forceful in getting responses modified as per the objectives of
study.
 There is possibility of an error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be
able to correctly judge the religion, age, race etc.
 Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.

b. Focus Group Interviewing: As the term suggests it is conducted within selected

group of respondents where the strength of the group is choice of the interviewer.
Usually such activity is regulated by a trained moderator who can keep the group
engaged from a few minutes to a few hours. The atmosphere is kept cool and the
respondents may be offered snacks or tea/coffee etc to keep them interested. The
moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some
understanding of group and consumer behavior. The process begins with a broad
question before moving to more specific issues, encouraging open and easy discussion
to bring out true feelings and thoughts i.e. moving from broader issue to specific ones
thus justifying the name focus group interviewing technique.

Such activity helps in identifying issues and subjects which may later be used in
conduct of study at larger scales or in case of direct interviews that are structured. The
responses are recorded and noted to analyze them at later stages.

This method is especially suited for managers of hotels and restaurants, who have
easy access to their customers. e.g. Some hotel managers often invite a group of hotel
guests from a particular market segment to have a free breakfast with them. Managers
get the chance to meet the guests and discuss what they like about the hotel and what
the hotel could do to make their stay more enjoyable and comfortable. The guests
appreciate this recognition and the manager gets valuable information. Restaurant
managers use the same approach by holding discussion meetings over lunch or dinner.

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Limitations:
• High cost.
• Sampling is difficult
• Interviewer bias.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: It is also named as Empirical Research or Cause and

Effect Method, it is a data-based research, resulting in conclusions that can be verified
with observation or experiment. Experimental research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. E.g.
• Tenderizers (independent variable) effect on cooking time and texture of meat
(dependent variable).
• The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such as soya
flour to flour for making high protein bread.
• Developing recipes to create new products.
The researcher exercises controls over the variables and conditions of experiments of
study and may use deliberate modification. A guess or a working hypothesis is developed
before the study commences. The effort is the made to gather data an facts to approve or
disapprove this hypothesis during the course of study.

―Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be

the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis‖. Lowe, Belle; 1958,
Experimental Cookery, John Willey & Sons, New York, pp 34-46.

TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION: Selecting a research instrument to gather

relevant information from the respondents is important to the study objectives. The
famous saying about computers- ―garbage in garbage out‖ is applicable for data
collection also. A research tool gives desired input for the study and therefore the quality
and validity of the output i.e. the findings is exclusively dependent on it.

Constructing a Research Tool:

Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research
questions for study.
Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions that
need to be answered through the study.
Step III: List the information required to answer the research questions formulated.
Step IV: Formulate questions to acquire such information.
A. Questionnaire:
Structured surveys/ interviews make the use of a questionnaire. It consists of a set of
questions presented to a respondent for answers. The respondents read the questions,
interpret what is expected and then write down the answers themselves.

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It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if
necessary, explains them) and records the respondent‘s reply on the interview schedule.
Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible.
Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being used on a large
scale.

There are three basic types of questionnaire:

i. Closed ended Questionnaire:
• Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten response categories,
and respondents are asked to choose among them e.g. multiple choice questions, scale
questions
• Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
• As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily into a
computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.

ii. Open ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in

their own words.
• Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leave a blank section for the
respondent to write an answer.
• Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many people
use open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people think about a
service.
• As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is more complex.
• As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires need to
be distributed.

• Combination of Closed and Open Ended Questionnaire: Such questionnaire is

used to find out how many people use a particular service and what they think of the
service in the same form. It begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with
boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open-ended questions
or more detailed response. The users of particular brand of tea may be asked about the
number of tines they drink tea, the average quantity used at home in one month, and
also what they think of quality and taste.
How to construct questionnaires:
a. Appropriate wording and structure of questions.
• Questions should be kept short and simple.
• Do not ask two or more questions by framing single one. E.g. asking a walk in guest
his name and type of room required at the same time. Requesting the above
information in two questions is easier.
• Never use negative questions which have not in them as it is confusing for respondent
to agree or disagree. Eg. I think you would not like to have tea in this hot weather?
• Question should not contain Prestige Bias – causing embarrassment or forcing the
respondent to give false answer in order to look good e.g. questions about educational
qualifications or income.

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• Always use indirect questions for sensitive issues as respondents can relate their
answer to other people.
• Using closed- ended questions: try to make sure that all possible answers are covered
so that respondents are not constrained in their answer. ―Don‘t know‖ category also
needs to be added.
• Avoid Leading Question: Don‘t lead the respondent to answer in a certain way. e.g.
―How often do you wash your car?‖ assumes that respondent has a car and he washes
his car. Instead, ask a filter question to find if he has a car, and then, ‗If you wash
your car, how many times a year?‘

b. Length and ordering of the Questions:

• Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
• Ask easy questions that respondents take pleasure in answering.
• If combined questionnaire, place open ended questions at the end.
• Make questions as interesting as possible and easy to follow by varying type and
length of question.
• Group the questions as per specific topic to be easily understood and followed.
• Layout and spacing is important as cluttered questionnaire is less likely to be
answered.

Piloting the Questionnaire: The questionnaire before being finalized should be cross
checked with peers, managers etc. Thereafter questionnaire must be piloted i.e. it should
be tested to see if it is obtaining the results as per objectives or not. This is done by asking
people to read it through and see if there are any ambiguities which you have not noticed.
They should also be asked to comment about the length, structure and wording of the
questionnaire. Alter the questions accordingly.

COLLECTING DATA: Data Collection becomes important once the other critical
issues like hypothesis, objectives, research problem, sampling design, location, and
population for study are addressed. This data gives the inputs from which the inferences
are drawn leading to conclusive findings. Depending upon your plans, you might
commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make
observations.

Collecting data through involves ethical issues in relation to the participants and the
researcher:
• Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a researcher
become participants of the study.
• Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted
code of conduct, is a researcher.
Ethical issues concerning research participants:
a. Safety of respondents: During the course of collecting information the respondents
should not be subjected to unnecessary harassment, anxiety, or putting them through

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 experiments including hazards, discomfort, demeaning or dehumanizing procedures
etc.

b. Permission or consent: It is important for respondents to be free and under no

pressure to participate in a study being conducted. The information that is sought
should be first assessed to be ethical. The respondent should be able to give an
informed consent. This will lead to honesty on part of the respondent and the
researcher. We should inform the respondents about the type of data or information
being sought, the purpose of such study, and how the respondent can get involved in
the study.

c. Incentives: The data collected does not need to be exchanged for a price as this
deters or de-motivates the respondents to participate in a research study. Offering
incentives, gifts, etc for seeking information is unethical and equivalent to bribing.

d. Sensitive Information: Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or

confidential by some people thus asking for such information may upset or embarrass
a respondent. E.g. questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status etc are
invasive. Researcher has to be careful about the sensitivities of the participants. Any
such information may be requested provided the respondent is informed and
explained the purpose beforehand.

e. Confidentiality: Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes

other than research is unethical. Identification of study population to put the findings
into context may be important but then it has to be assured that the information
provided by respondents remains anonymous.

Ethical issues relating to the researcher:

a. Prejudice: Any deliberate attempt to hide the findings of the study or highlight
something disproportionately to its true existence leads to a bias or prejudice. E.g.
During year end appraisal if only the shortcomings are highlighted the candidate may
not be evaluated honestly.
b.
Provision or deprivation of a treatment: This may be understood as conducting an
experiment without having the confidence whether it would be fruitful or otherwise
for a study population. But at the same time on the other hand a constructive result
may lead to wonderful results and benefits. E.g. developing a new food product for
health benefits.

c. Inappropriate research methodology: Any instrument or process that may be

unsuitable or have negative effect on a study should be avoided. E.g. asking
respondents questions which lead to findings convenient to the researcher only.

d. Misrepresentation of facts: To report the findings in a way that changes or slants

them to serve your own or someone else‘s interest is unethical.

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e. Misuse of data: The data collected has to be used only for the purpose it is collected
for not for making unethical usage. E.g. if the data of users is shared by a banking
institution with an advertising company it leads to invasion of privacy and rights of
the bank‘s clients.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

1. What are the various types of sample design?

2. Write a note on ‗Methods of Collecting Primary Data‘.

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2.7 References/Bibliography
 Kumar Ranjit: Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage
Publication, 2014.
 Kothari C.R. : Research Methodology, New Age International, 2011.
 Shajahan S. : Research Methods for Management, 2004.
 Thanulingom N : Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing

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C. Rajendar Kumar : Research Methodology , APH Publishing
 J. R. Brent Ritchie, Charles R. Goeldner : Travel, Tourism, and Hospitality
Research: A Handbook for Managers and Researchers, Wiley Publishers
Publishers Ltd, UK

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