VALENCE FORCES

There are two kinds of forces, or attractions, that operate in a molecule—intramolecular and

intermolecular. Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a

molecule, they contain all types of chemical bond. Intermolecular forces are forces that exist

between molecules

Figure of intermolecular attraction between two H-Cl molecules and intramolecular attraction

within H-Cl molecule

Types of intramolecular forces of attraction

1. Ionic bond: This bond is formed by the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between

atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds,

the metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts

those electrons to become a negatively charged anion

2. Covalent bond: This bond is formed between atoms that have similar electronegativities—

the affinity or desire for electrons. Because both atoms have similar affinity for electrons and

neither has a tendency to donate them, they share electrons in order to achieve octet

configuration and become more stable.

A nonpolar covalent bond is formed between same atoms or atoms with very similar electro

negativities—the difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms is less than 0.5.

A polar covalent bond is formed when atoms of slightly different electronegativities share

electrons. The difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms is between 0.5 and 1.9.

Hydrogen chloride, HCl; the O−H bonds in water, H2O and hydrogen fluoride, HF are all

examples of polar covalent bonds.

Figure of polar covalent bond forming between H and Cl

3. Metallic bonding: This type of covalent bonding specifically occurs between atoms of metals,

in which the valence electrons are free to move through the lattice. This bond is formed via the

attraction of the mobile electrons—referred to as sea of electrons—and the fixed positively

charged metal ions. Metallic bonds are present in samples of pure elemental metals, such as gold

or aluminum, or alloys, like brass or bronze.

The freely moving electrons in metals are responsible for their a reflecting property—freely

moving electrons oscillate and give off photons of light—and their ability to effectively conduct

heat and electricity.

Relative strength of the intramolecular forces

Basis of formation Relative strength

Intramolecular force

Metallic bond Metal cations to delocalized 1, strongest

electrons

Ionic bond Cations to anions 2

Polar covalent bond Partially charged cation to 3

partially charged anion

Nonpolar covalent bond Nuclei to shared electrons 4, weakest

Intermolecular forces of attraction

Intermolecular forces are much weaker than the intramolecular forces of attraction but are

important because they determine the physical properties of molecules like their boiling point,

melting point, density, and enthalpies of fusion and vaporization.

Types of intermolecular forces that exist between molecules

1. Dipole-dipole interactions: These forces occur when the partially positively charged

part of a molecule interacts with the partially negatively charged part of the neighboring

molecule. The prerequisite for this type of attraction to exist is partially charged ions—for

example, the case of polar covalent bonds such as hydrogen chloride, HCl. Dipole-dipole

interactions are the strongest intermolecular force of attraction.

2. Hydrogen bonding: This is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs

specifically between a hydrogen atom bonded to either an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom.

The partially positive end of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen,

nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule. Hydrogen bonding is a relatively strong force of

attraction between molecules, and considerable energy is required to break hydrogen bonds. This

explains the exceptionally high boiling points and melting points of compounds like water, H2O

and hydrogen fluoride, HF. Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in biology; for example,

hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding nucleotide bases together in DNA and RNA.

3. London dispersion forces: These are the weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist

between all types of molecules, whether ionic or covalent—polar or nonpolar. Although non-

polar molecules and inert gas atoms have no dipole moment, the electron cloud in these
particles, at one instant, may be denser on one side of the particle than the other. This

causes a temporary dipole. The particle has, for a brief moment, one end with a small positive

charge and the other end with an equally small negative charge. The more electrons a molecule

has, the stronger the London dispersion forces are. For example, bromine, Br2, has more

electrons than chlorine, Cl2, so bromine will have stronger London dispersion forces than

chlorine, resulting in a higher boiling point for bromine, 59 oC compared to chlorine, –35 oC.

Also, the breaking of London dispersion forces doesn’t require that much energy, which explains

why nonpolar covalent compounds like methane—CH4—oxygen, and nitrogen—which only

have London dispersion forces of attraction between the molecules—freeze at very low

temperatures.

Figure of intramolecular nonpolar covalent bonding between Cl atoms and Long dispersion

forces between Cl-Cl molecules

Relative strength of intermolecular forces of attraction

Intermolecular force Occurs between … Relative strength

Dipole-dipole attraction Partially oppositely charged Strongest

ions

Hydrogen bonding H atom and O, N/ or F As strong as dipole-

atom dipole attraction

London-dispersion Temporary or induced Weakest

attraction dipoles

Structure of solids

 Solids are composed of particles that do not possess enough kinetic energy to slide past each

other and instead remain in their organization while essentially vibrating in place.

 Substances in the solid phase, maintain a defined shape and volume.

 Solids are the densest phase of matter, or most tightly compact.

 Solids contain the least energy, which helps to explain why their particles stick together

so securely.