History of Ancient and Medieval Philosophy Revision Document

1st Lesson
Philo = love / Sophia = knowledge or wisdom
➔ Love for knowledge or wisdom

SOPHISTS
• Reasons with clever but false information
• Offered instruction in a wide range of subjects
• Not seeking the truth but victory in debate and were prepared to use dishonest means to
achieve this.
• HOWEVER, Pythagoras opposed sophists, then Socrates, then Plato

MYTHOS (200,000 to 600 BC)

• An explanation based on tradition
• Explain the world through gods and supernatural phenomena
• Belongs to field of religion
• It is impossible to know the behaviour of the world because it obeys the whim/will of a
divinity
• Doesn’t accept review. Myths are finished thoughts.

LOGOS (600 BC onwards)

• Explanation based on critic and logic
• Explains the world without gods and supernatural phenomena
• Belongs to field of philosophy
• We can know the behaviour of the world because it obeys to fixed laws and rules
• It does accept review, new, and better explanations

PHILOSOPHICAL REVOLUTION
• Rejected the accepted mythological account in favor of a rational account
• Western philosophy began in Greece during 7th century BCE (Ancient Hellas)
• Birth of rational worldview took place in a unique context of circumstance

PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS
Arkhe = 1st principle of things, ultimate underlying substance.

THALES
• Water is basic stuff
• Everything comes from water as the originating source, or that everything really is water in one
form or another
• “the nourishment of all things is moist, and that even the hot itself comes to be from this and
lives on this”

ANAXIMANDER
• Originating stuff of the cosmos something indefinite or boundless = APEIRON
• Indefinite stuff is moving, directive of other things, and eternal; thus, it qualifies as divine.
• Substantial opposites (the hot, the cold) that act on one another and that are in turn the
generating stuff for the sensible world.
• “This [the infinite, apeiron] does not have an arkhē, but this seems to be the arkhē of the rest”
ANAXIMENES
• Originative stuff = dense mist than what we think of as air, which is ideally transparent = AĒR
• Aēr is indefinite enough to give rise to the other things in the cosmos, but it is not as vague as
Anaximander’s apeiron
• “Becoming finer, it comes to be fire; being condensed, it comes to be wind, then cloud; and
when still further condensed, it becomes water, then earth, then stones, and the rest come to be
from these.”

PYTHAGORAS

• He was most likely the originator of the important and influential Pythagorean doctrine of the
transmigration of souls
• Opposed sophists
• Rejected the Ionian methods of inquiry and turned from searching out the basic stuff of the
universe to a study of the form that makes it a kosmos.
• Substance is the same (earth and water) but we are all different because we have different souls
• We die, soul doesn’t die. What happens to soul? Flies away to metempsychosis (beyond, inside,
soul, process) until it finds another body = reincarnation
•
• Followers split into 2 groups

1. Akousmatikoi = who venerated Pythagoras’ teachings on religion and the proper way to live
but had little interest in the philosophical aspects of Pythagoreanism
2. Mathematikoi = had a great reputation in the ancient world for philosophical,
mathematical,musical, and astronomical knowledge, while still following a Pythagorean way
of life

Metempsychosis = Soul's transmigration, through reincarnation into another body. Immortal Soul.

XENOPHANES OF COLOPHON

EPHESUS
DEMOCRITUS

• “The wise man belongs to all countries, for the home of a great soul is the whole world.”
• “The wrongdoer is more unfortunate than the man wronged.”
• “Our sins are more easily remembered than our good deeds.”
• All matter is composed of tiny, indestructible units called atoms (from the Greek "atomos,"
meaning uncuttable). Atoms move through the void (space), differing in shape, position, and
arrangement. This motion and interaction of atoms produced the various forms and types of
matter observed in the world. = MATERIALIST VIEW OF THE WORLD
• “When Democritus said that the atoms are in contact with each other, he did not mean contact,
strictly speaking, which occurs when the surfaces of the things in contact fit perfectly with one
another, but the condition in which the atoms are near one another and not far apart is what he
called contact. For no matter what, they are separated by void.”

HERACLITUS

• “No same man could walk through the same river twice, as the man and the river have since
changed.”
• All the things we observe, including ourselves, are nothing more tan a continually changing set of
states, none of them real

PARMENIDES OF ELEO

• Being = It is only one. There cannot be more than one. It is inifinite. It is everywhere. / It is
eternal. It has no beginning nor end. / It is indivisible. It has no parts or hollows. / It doesn ́t
move.
• The original Being initially emanates, or expels, the nous, which is the perfect image of the
One and archetype of all things that exist.
• At least some humans have a portion of divine matter. If the human being gets rid of his
material part, the body, he will be able to ascend towards the ONE.

CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHERS

SOCRATES

• Socratic Method = questioning and dialogue. Asking probing questions to stimulate critical
thinking and self-examination. Uncover truth and expose ignorance.
• Defense of Philosophy = philosophical pursuits are motivated by a desire to seek wisdom and
virtue. Mission to improve moral character of individuals and the city
• Death is either a state of nothingness or a journey to the afterlife.
• “I only know one thing, and that is I know nothing” So how am I the wisest guy on earth? = True
wisdom comes from recognizing the extent of one’s weaknesses
• Enemy of sophists
• “That Socrates is a doer of evil, who corrupts the youth; and who does not believe in the gods of
the state”

PLATO

• Anamnesis = Recollection and remembrance of the past.

• “We do not learn and what we call learning is only a process of recollection.”
• Menmom (Innate Knowledge) = All learning is a recollection of innate knowledge learned at birth,
thus learning is discovering knowledge within us = OPPOSES empiricism
• Cave Analogy = Journey from ignorance to enlightenment. Receives knowledge = not the same
anymore

Charioteer Analogy

Rational Prudence & Wisdom Pride

Irascible Courage & Strength Anger & Envy
Concupiscent Moderation Lust & Greed

Human beings have 3 parts, but in each of us, one of them dominates over the other 2

Logos = In the head, the thinking part responsible for reasoning and rationality. The logos is in charge
of the 2 other parts, regulating these. As a virtuous person should seek to use their rationality for
prudence and wisdom, rather than pride. The rulers are the logos, most commonly being
philosophers, to which the Thymus and Eros obey.

Thymus = Located near the chest, is the spirit. This is the spirited part which houses emotions. This
part is characterized as being irascible, thus dominated by anger and envy. However, a virtuous
person should seek to counter these emotions, fostering instead courage and strength. The guardians
are the thymus, obeying the Logos to defend internal and external order.

Eros = Located near the stomach, responsible for the desire for physical pleasures, dominated by
appetite and desire. Being concupiscent, a virtuous person should seek for moderation rather than
lust and greed. The ordinary citizens (producers) are the Eros, functioning to produce and seek
pleasure.

IDEAL STATE Philosophers – Guardians – Producers (similar to cast system in India)

Theory of Forms = distinguishes between the physical world and the world of ideas (forms). The forms
represent the most accurate reality. Knowledge of the forms (ideas) constitutes true knowledge.

Philosopher-Kings = In the ideal state, are the only ones who can achieve knowledge of the forms,
particularly the Form of the Good, which is the highest form and the source of all other forms. This
knowledge qualifies them to make wise and just decisions for the society.

Role of Education = designed to identify and train future rulers from an early age, based on their
aptitudes and abilities. Education is not just for personal development but is a means to maintain the
ideal state.

Degeneration of states = Plato discusses the decline of states from the ideal (aristocracy) through
various lesser forms (timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny), each representing a decline in
moral and intellectual standards. “Democracy is governed by the people, and most people are the
lowest level of enlightenment.”

ARISTOPHANES

ARISTOTLE

• Virtue = character dispositions or personality traits that makes us praiseworthy and considered
as ‘good humans’, contributing to our human flourishment. Golden mean between excess and
deficiency. Develop through practice.
• Eudaimonia = highest good for humans. Leads to human flourishment.
• Intellectual virtue = education and contemplation (eg wisdom and understanding)
• Moral virtue = arise from habit. (courage and temperance)

6 sources of knowledge

1. Empeiria = experience (obtained through senses, organized by memory, shared w/ some

animals) ACTION REACTION
2. Tekhne = Technical and artistic creation cannot be possible without employing knowledge of
some kind. Obtained through learning and repetition, related w/ creative function
3. Phronesis = prudence. Type of knowledge we employ when having to make moral
judgements, probing us to act in a certain manner that leads to a “good life”. Obtained
through observation, learning and reflection.
4. Episteme = science (making sense of world around us)
5. Nous = intelligence, intellect
6. Sophia = Wisdom. Knowing 1st principle through NOUS, demonstrate truth through EPISTEME.
Form knowledge which forms the basis of philosophical thinking, gathering wisdom through
intellectual reasoning (nous) and proof (episteme).

Objections to golden mean

1. Is the Golden Mean the best method for decisión making? (eg is there a golden mean for
adultery)
2. The Golden Mean is not easy to implement. It is not always evident what the middle between
two vices is. So, the decision making becomes something very subjective.
3. Aristotle mentions the 11 moral virtues we should have in our character traits...But, why are
things like thruthfulness, courage, generosity virtues? Why should we consider them as part
of a virtous character? Do really these 11 things create a happy life? Aristotle doesn ́t provide
any solid grounding for his 11 virtues
4. The theory is only concernerd with you as an individual. So being a virtuous person and
reaching eudemonia becomes a selfish approach to Ethics. It is not doing your duty, nor
achieving the common good A virtuous human being is basically a selfish person.

Phronesis = Practical wisdom (intellectual virtue) crucial for moral virtues. Allows individuals to
deliberate correctly about what is good and beneficial for life, guiding moral virtues towards right
actions and the good life.

ETHICS
Theological Ethics = “The ends justify the means” eg Lying is ok in some circumstances. Focused on
duties, laws.

Deontological Ethics = “The ends never justify the means.” Lying is an intrinsic evil.

Virtue Ethics = focused on character.

Virtue based morality Plato = Virtue is kind of Knowledge but knowing what virtue is is not enough to
be virtuous. The rational part of the soul not always controls the will. Weakness of the will does exist.

Virtue Based Morality Socrates = Virtue is kind of Knowledge but knowing what virtue is is not enough
to be virtuous. The rational part of the soul not always controls the will. Weakness of the will does
exist.

Virtue Based Morality Aristotle = I will move in a different direction.

PHILOSOPHICAL BEHAVIOURS

STOICISM

• School of stoicism: emphasized rationality and self-control as a means to achieve mental stability.
Passion and pleasures are bad for the soul, it always brings pain.
• Gods = there is a divine plan
• Acting according to reason

SENECA – STOICISM

• “How much better to heal than seek revenge from injury.”

• “We’re tight- fisted with property and money, yet think too little of wasting time, the one
thing about which we should all be the toughest misers.”
• “When you see someone often flashing their rank or position, or someone whose name is
often bandied about in public, don’t be envious; such things are bought at the expense of
life...”
• “Show me someone who isn’t a slave! One is a slave to lust, another to greed, another to
power, and all are slaves to fear.”
• (illness, war, torture) The point is not to wish for these adversities, but for the virtue to
make adversities bearable.
• Everything depends on opinion; ambition, luxury, greed, hark back to opinion. It is
according to opinion that we suffer....

MARCUS AURELIUS – STOICISM

• Accepting fate and natural order of the universe. Focus on what you an control.
• Constant self-examination and reflection to improve one’s character and soul
• Rational structure of the universe = logos
• The universe is an entity governed by reason. Individuals should live in harmony with this
rational order.

PYRRHO OF ELIS – SKEPTICISM

• Radical skepticism. Senses are unreliable and our reasoning can be flawed.
• Main goal = Ataraxia (tranquility)

EPICUREANISM
• Aponia and Ataraxia are key to happiness
• Ataraxia = Tranquility. Serene state of mind. Free from worry or emotional disturbance.
• Aponia = Absence of Pain.
• Tetrapharmakos = 4 remedies for the soul: don’t fear god; don’t worry about death; what is good
is easy to get; what is terrible is easy to endure
• Friendship as essential to acquisition of happiness.
• Passion in natural part of human being, it is good if it is moderate.
• Shouldn’t fear god(s), no existence or at least, not relevant to our lives
• Acting in order to attain pleasure

EPICURUS – EPICUREANISM
• “Sex never benefitted anyone.”
• “Pleasure is the end and aim”. “By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and
of trouble in the soul.”

DIOGENES OF SINOPE
• “Deface the currency.”
• “Socrates going mad.”
• Live like an animal because animals don’t feel shame (live in a barrel, urinate in public, defecate
in theaters)

Parrhesia = Shamelessness by word. Speaking with frankness. Free speech. What Socrates was killed
for.

ATHISTENES – CYNICISM

• Everything is a social construct. Questions constructs, laws and conventions.

• To be happy – remove social conventions in our lives and live according to nature

PLOTINUS – NEOPLATONISM

• Everything In the universe originates from the one. Ultimate goal of life – achieve union with the
one.
• Reality emanates from The One in a series of descending stages, each less perfect than the one
before
• “The One cannot be any existing thing, but rather it is first than all existing things”
• “The One is more than being, more than essence, more than existence, more than God.”

CRATES OF THEBES
• Cynic.
• Gave up his large fortune to live a life of poverty (and free of material possessions).
• True happiness occurs when one is free from external goods and societal norms.
• Disregard materialism and live according to human nature.

Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John = 4 GOSPELS

Main Ideas and Quotes: These individuals are traditionally recognized as the authors of the four
canonical gospels in the New Testament, which describe the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of
Jesus. Each gospel has a unique perspective:

MARK

• Focuses on the suffering, humanity, and discipleship of Jesus.

• “For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a
ransom for many.”

MATTHEW

• Emphasizes Jesus as the fulfillment of prophesies and the moral teachings of Jesus, particularly in
the Sermon on the Mount.
• “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.”
• “Blessed are the poor in spirit, For theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are those who hunger
and thirst for righteousness, For they shall be filled. Blessed are those who mourn, For they shall
be comforted. for great is your reward in heaven.”

LUKE

• Highlights the universality of Jesus' message, his concern for the marginalized, and the role of
the Holy Spirit.
• “For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, who is Christ the Lord.”
• “Blessed be ye poor: for your sis the kingdom of God. Blessed are ye that hunger now: for ye
shall be filled. Blessed are y ethat weep now:for ye shall laugh. for,behold, you rreward is great
in heaven.”

JOHN
• Focuses on the divine nature of Jesus and his role as the incarnate Word of God.
• “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.”

JESUS (MESSIAH)
• Preached preached messages of love, forgiveness, and redemption. His teachings emphasized
the importance of love towards God and neighbor, the value of the Kingdom of God, humility,
and the potential for personal and communal transformation.
• "Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This
is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: Love your neighbor as
yourself."
• The King (Herod) tries to kill the baby. Saved by a miracle. Destined to save the new Israel
(Humanity). He gives the new Law on mountain (in Galilee)
• From Jesus of Nazareth to Jesus Christ with help of mythical though and philosophy
• “After two days will he revive us: in the third day he will raise us up, and we shall live in his
sight.”

NATURE OF JESUS
 1. Adoptionism: man adopted by God
2. Docetism: Christ did not have a real or natural body during his life on earth but only an
apparent or phantom one
3. Preexisting being: “In the beginning was the Word (logos), and the Word was with God, and
the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him;
and without him was not any thing made that was made. In him was life; and the life was the
light of men. And the light shineth in darkness; and the darkness comprehended it not. “

3 QUESTIONS OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE

- Nature of Jesus
- Nature of the group and misión until Jesus comes for the second time (The Church)
- Nature of the Salvation

SERMON ON THE MOUNT

• The Beatitudes and the Kingdom of God

• The Law
• Ethos – Authority
• Eye for an eye
• Love your enemies
• Lord's prayer
• What's Mathew telling to us?

Echthros = enemy. Someone you hate for social/religious reasons. Someone who lives among us.

MOSES
• Received the Ten Commandments from God, which are foundational to the ethical and religious
conduct in these faiths.
• "Let my people go," although biblically attributed in narrative, captures the essence of his
mission for liberation in many adaptations.
• The King (Pharaoh) tries to kill the baby. Saved by a miracle. Destined to save the people of Israel.
He receives the Law on a mountain (Sinai)

THOMAS AQUINAS

• "To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To one without faith, no explanation is
possible."
• “Doubt is but another element of faith”
• 5 arguments for existence of god: motion, cause, contingency and necessity, designer, grades
of perfection

7 Instincts = life, reproduction, education, worship, social life, avoid offence, shun ignorance

Preambles of Faith = propositions, revealed by God, that human reason could in principle come to
knowledge of whiteout the aid of revelation. THROUGH HUMAN REASON

Mysteries of the Faith = propositions, revealed by God, that human reason could not even in principle
come to knowledge of without the aid of revelation

AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
 • “Believe to understand, understand to believe"
• “Faith is to believe what you do not see; the reward for this faith is to see what you believe.”
• “Some people, in order to discover God, read books. But there is a great book: the very
appearance of created things.”
• “Unless you believe, you will not understand.”
• “Understanding is the reward of faith. Therefore, seek not to understand that you may
believe, but believe that you may understand."
• “Intelletcus merces est fidei” Understanding is the reward of faith.
• “A day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like a day.” = time as a creature of
god

There are three times, a present of things past, a present of things present, a present of things future.
For these three exist in the mind, and I find them nowhere else: the present of things past is memory,
the present of things present is sight, and the present of things future is expectation.

De Quantitatae Animae = the soul is a substance endowed with reason, designed to govern the body.
Privatio Boni = Absence of good. Explanation for the existence of evil. According to St. Augustine
6 problems = truth/knowledge, god, creation, soul, good and evil, the city of god

ANSELM OF CANTERBURY
1. We all have an idea of God. He is the most... in all aspects of existence. He is the Greatest
Conceivable Being (GCB). 2. The GCB could not be the GCB if only existed in mind, because a GBC
could exist only in reality. 3. So GCB must exist both in mind and in reality. 4. Therefore, God must
exist.

PETER DAMIAN

• “Credo quia absurdum.”

• “Crede ut intelligas,”
• “Philosophia ancilla Theologiae.”

Double truth = Faith and Reason lead to the same truth. No conflict between them.

Ataraxia = Serene state of calmness. Freedom from worry

Hedoné = Pleasure, understood as absence of pain in the body and trouble in the soul
Apatheia = Virtue of make adversities bearable