polymers

Editorial
Mechanical Behavior of Polymeric Materials: Recent Studies
Emilia P. Collar * and Jesús-María García-Martínez *

Polymer Engineering Group (GIP), Polymer Science and Technology Institute (ICTP), Spanish National Research
Council (CSIC), C/Juan de la Cierva, 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected] (E.P.C.); [email protected] (J.-M.G.-M.)

This Special Issue is devoted to one of the most exciting fields in polymer science and
technology: the many factors that influence the properties of polymer-based materials.
Therefore, it is pertinent to provide readers with some fundamental information on what is
meant by failure in a polymer-based material (and thus in its mechanical properties). From a
fundamental approach, fracture in a given material means overpassing the bond forces that
keep its constituent atoms together. However, the ways in which these atoms are bonded
as molecules and appear as very different types of supramolecular aggregates lead to
complex questions, implying a heterogeneous character in these materials. In determining
material strength capabilities, it has been undisputed since early studies by Griffith [1] that
a fracture will always take place in the weakest region of a material; however, the search
for empirical and semi-empirical approaches based on the results of conveniently designed
mechanical testing procedures restricted to material or part performance still represent an
open research question.
These considerations have become especially relevant in the case of heterogeneous
materials based entirely or partially on organic polymers. From early times in materials
research [2–4], it has been well established that the stress/strain relationship is not linear,
because it is strongly dependent on time and temperature effects on the applied external
force level and morphological changes in the material bulk as a result of environmental
conditions [5–7]. This underscores the ongoing importance of research in this field fulfilling
key research requirements and ensuring reproducible and reliable results. The development
of inter-laboratory protocols and international standardized procedures is testament to
the reliability of our results, and these efforts are crucial in providing robust mechanical
Citation: Collar, E.P.; García-Martínez, parameter values [8–13]. These values should be suitable for incorporation into solid
J.-M. Mechanical Behavior of databases to feed polymeric part and material design software [14] in order to forecast
Polymeric Materials: Recent Studies. the mechanical behavior of a polymeric material once it reaches the solid state after the
Polymers 2024, 16, 2821. https:// processing steps that determine the emerging morphologies of the organic fractions in this
doi.org/10.3390/polym16192821 type of material [15,16].
Ultimately, findings have made it clear that the study of mechanical energy interacts
Received: 20 August 2024
with matter and materials in different ways in different environments and conditions. This,
Revised: 27 September 2024
Accepted: 27 September 2024
together with the correct analysis of material responses, will continue to be vital in the
Published: 5 October 2024
development of mathematical models to assist in material design optimization within a
general framework of sustainability, with the end purpose of avoiding catastrophic failure
situations. A significant number of manuscripts were submitted for consideration for this
Special Issue, but only a limited number were published following the rigorous revision
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. process of Polymers. This Special Issue includes eleven exciting works related to this hotspot
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. in polymer R&D. The articles compiled in this volume fully align with the philosophies
This article is an open access article mentioned above. The aim of this Editorial is not to elaborate on each of the texts but to
distributed under the terms and encourage the reader to browse them in depth.
conditions of the Creative Commons
Sun et al. [17] present a finite element numerical simulation calculation for pavement
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
structure load responses, considering that there is still a lack of research on polyurethane
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
(PU) mixture composite pavement load responses because of our lack of understanding
4.0/).

Polymers 2024, 16, 2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16192821 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

of the mechanical characteristics of PU mixture composite pavement. To fill this gap, this
article analyses the mechanical properties of PU mixtures using the dynamic modulus test,
the uniaxial penetration test, fatigue tests, and the finite element theory calculation method,
to perform a load response calculation for an orthogonal-design composite pavement
structure. The results show that PU mixtures exhibit more obvious elastic characteristics
with good shear resistance, fatigue, and temperature stability and can be employed as shear
and anti-fatigue layers. Using these data, a comparison with conventional pavement is
performed and fascinating conclusions are drawn.
The article by Shishkovsky et al. [18] presents a study on the mechanical and thermo-
mechanical performance of shape memory PLA parts by employing many sets, considering
five variable printing parameters, in an FDM printing method. The results show that the
temperature of the extruder and the nozzle diameter were the most significant parameters
when it came to achieving better mechanical properties in the final part. In other words,
this comprehensive study demonstrated a complex operational relationship between the
mechanical and thermomechanical properties determined, combining the characteristics of
a thermoplastic material with the shape memory effect and FDM printing parameters.
Vozniak et al. [19] investigated the mass transfer process of binary esters of acetic acid
in poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), poly(ethylene terephthalate) with a high degree of
glycol modification (PETG), and glycol-modified poly(cyclohexanedimethylene terephtha-
late) (PCTG), finding that the desorption rate of the complex ether at the equilibrium point
was significantly lower than the sorption rate, depending on the type of polyester and the
temperature and permitting the accumulation of ester in the polyester bulk. This effect is
beneficial as a physical blowing agent in the filament extrusion additive manufacturing
(AM) process, and it represents the main advantage of the obtention of nonbrittle foams
compared to conventional polyester foams.
The work by Ehrmann et al. [20] is focused on the use of textile fabrics in fabricating
stab-resistant garments with the advantage of being lightweight, considering most materials
on the market. These research attempts are currently focused on textile fabrics, mostly
through impregnation with shear-thickening fluids (STFs) or ceramic coatings, as well as on
lightweight composites. In this work, the authors discuss different measurement methods,
including dynamic and quasistatic methods, and the correlations of stab resistance with
other physical properties jointly with an overview of recent developments and research on
stab-resistant polymers, by employing different materials and combinations of materials
and structures.
The investigation by Wildemann et al. [21] is focused on the effect of various types of
external loadings on composite structures, leading to a decrease in mechanical properties
in a system as a whole. For this purpose, many experimental investigations into the
mechanical behavior of composites under uniaxial cyclic loading had previously been
carried out. In contrast, in this study, new data on reducing composite materials’ mechanical
characteristics under multiaxial cyclic loading were examined. Hence, these authors
performed an experimental investigation into the mechanical behavior of fiberglass tubes
under proportional cyclic loading and static and fatigue tests conducted under tension with
torsion conditions. Further, the accumulation of structural damage was examined. Finally,
the authors conclude that multiaxial cyclic loading significantly reduces the mechanical
properties and must be considered in composite structure design.
The research article by Sebaey, Wagih et al. [22] demonstrates an enhancement in
notch sensitivity in a hybrid carbon/epoxy (CFRP) composite with a Kevlar core sandwich
compared to monotonic CFRP and Kevlar composites, bearing in mind that so-called
fiber-reinforced plastic composites are sensitive to holes inducing out-of-plane stresses.
The study is performed through open-hole tension (OHT) tests and further comparison of
the open-hole tensile strength and strain and damage propagation. The results show that
hybrid laminate has a lower notch sensitivity than CFRP and KFRP laminates because the
strength reduction rate with the hole size is lower.
Polymers 2024, 16, 2821 3 of 4

Belaadi et al. [23] present a comprehensive study of the elements that enhance the
performance of biocomposites or sustainable ropes created from vegetable fibers, which
need to have a high confidence interval (95% CI) for the mechanical characteristic data of
performance materials in order to be useful for the design of parts due to the enormous
variation in plant fibers properties. To achieve this, the authors implemented an experimen-
tal design involving four groups, varying the number of tests to determine the mechanical
properties (modulus, strength, and strain at break) of sisal yarn in order to ensure that the
CI was at least 95%.
The work by Peponi et al. [24] reports their study into the mechanical behavior of
woven and non-woven PLA/OLA/MgO electrospun fibers in detail using the Box–Wilson
surface response methodology as a follow-up to a previous work by the authors, where the
diameters and thermal responses of these fibers were discussed in terms of the different
amounts of magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgO), as well as the oligomer (lactic acid,
OLA) used as a plasticizer. The results suggest that these works can be strongly correlated.
Critical points for both MgO and OLA were identified. Therefore, the approach presented
by the authors permits the design of tailor-made electrospun nanocomposites with specific
mechanical requirements.
The contribution by Koutsos et al. [25] addresses variability in the thermomechan-
ical behavior of virgin and recycled polypropylene/high-density polyethylene blends
without other components. The authors highlight the fact that understanding the per-
formance variability in such blends is a crucial aspect in enabling recycled materials to
re-enter the consumer market in terms of the circular economy, requiring further research
to minimize the inhomogeneity of recycled materials. For these purposes, the authors
performed a complete thermal and mechanical characterization of virgin and recycled
polypropylene/high-density polyethylene blends, concluding that recycled and virgin
blends are immiscible. This study was complemented by a dynamical mechanical anal-
ysis showing a slight variation in the storage modulus of recycled and virgin blends but
lower alpha and beta relaxation temperatures in recycled blends. Additionally, the authors
conclude that the tensile properties of recycled blends exhibit worse properties, which
they explain.
The article authored by Cauich-Robriguez, Peponi et al. [26] explores the possibility
of mimicking the architecture of human coronary artery native vessels for biomedical
applications. The authors used roto-evaporation to engineer a three-layer polyurethane
vascular graft (TVG). They synthesized two segmented polyurethanes using lysine (SPUUK)
and ascorbic acid (SPUAA) to create the intima and adventitia layers, respectively. In
contrast, the media layer was fabricated from a commercially available polyurethane and
compared to single-layer vascular grafts (SVGs) from individual polyurethanes and a
polyurethane blend (MVG). They found that the TVG exhibited the highest circumferential
tensile strength and longitudinal forces compared to single-layer vascular grafts of lower
thicknesses made from the same polyurethanes. The TVG also showed higher suture and
burst strength values than native vessels. Additionally, the authors performed an indirect
cytocompatibility test, showing 90 to 100% viability for all polyurethanes, surpassing
the minimum 70% threshold needed for biomaterials deemed to have cytocompatibility.
Except for SPUUK, all exhibited poor fibroblast adhesion and hemolysis values under the
permissible limit of 5%, as well as longer coagulation times.
Finally, Minh et al. [27] present a study investigating the mechanical properties of
coconut sawdust powder combined with polypropylene (PP) by observing the effect of
the compatibilizer, wood powder (WP) content, and injection molding parameters on the
properties of coconut wood powder composite (WPC). Based on a Taguchi experimental
design, the authors performed an interesting investigation to determine the influential co-
ordinates required to obtain optimized mechanical properties (tensile and flexural strength
and hardness), aided by scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). They mainly concluded
that the parameters influencing the ultimate properties follow a hierarchy, with the wood
powder being the most influential and the melt temperature being the least influential.
Polymers 2024, 16, 2821 4 of 4

To conclude, as the Guest Editors of this fascinating Special Issue, we can comfortably
say that the topic “Mechanical Behavior of Polymeric Materials” represents an essential
framework in the field of Polymer Science and Technology, now and in the near future. For
this reason, a second Special Issue on this topic, to be published in 2025 in Polymers, is now
in progress and open for submissions, and contributions are welcomed.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Griffith, A.A. The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 1921, 221, 163–198.
2. Flory, P.J. Principles of Polymer Chemistry; Cornell University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1953.
3. Morawetz, H. Polymers: The Origins and Growth of a Science; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1985.
4. Peterlin, A. Plastic Deformation of Polymers; M. Dekker: New York, NY, USA, 1971.
5. Van Krevelen, D.W.; Nijenhuis, K.T. Properties of Polymers: Their Correlation with Chemical Structure; Their Numerical Estimation
and Prediction from Additive Group Contributions; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2009.
6. Mascia, L. The Role of Additives in Plastics; Halsted Press: New York, NY, USA, 1975.
7. Gugumus, F. The Use of Accelerated Tests in the Evaluation of Antioxidants and Light Stabilizers. In Developments in Polymer
Stabilisation-8; Scott, G., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1987.
8. Al Malaika, S.; Golovoy, A.; Wilkie, C.A. Chemistry and Technology of Polymer Additives; Blackwell Science: Oxford, UK, 1999.
9. Mascia, L. Thermoplastics: Materials Engineering, 2nd ed.; Elsevier: New York, NY, USA, 1989; Chapter 4.
10. Katz, H.S.; Milewski, J.V. Hand Book of Fillers and Reinforcements for Plastics; Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York, NY, USA, 1978.
11. Cogswell, E.N. Thermoplastic Aromatic Polymer Composites; Buttenvorth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 1992.
12. Carlsson, L.A.; Adams, D.F.; Pipes, R.B. Experimental Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials, 4th ed.; CRC Press: Boca
Raton, Fl, USA, 2014.
13. Roulin-Moloney, A.C. (Ed.) Fractography and Failure Mechanisms of Polymers and Composites; Kluwer Academic Publishers:
Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1989.
14. Japan Association for Chemical Innovation (Ed.) Computer Simulation of Polymeric Materials: Applications of the OCTA System;
Springer: Singapore, 2016.
15. Han, C.D. Rheology in Polymer Processing; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1976.
16. Tadmor, Z.; Gogos, C.G. Principles of Polymer Processing, 2nd ed.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 1979.
17. Zhuang, W.; Bi, Y.; Liu, B.; Hou, D.; Jing, S.; Lu, X.; Sun, M. Mechanical Properties of Polyurethane Mixture and Load Response
Behaviour of Polyurethane Composite Pavement. Polymers 2023, 15, 417. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Issabayeva, Z.; Shishkovsky, I. Prediction of The Mechanical Behavior of Polylactic Acid Parts with Shape Memory Effect
Fabricated by FDM. Polymers 2023, 15, 1162. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Sova, N.; Savchenko, B.; Beloshenko, V.; Slieptsov, A.; Vozniak, I. Sorption Properties of PET Copolyesters and New Approach for
Foaming with Filament Extrusion Additive Manufacturing. Polymers 2023, 15, 1138. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Panneke, N.; Ehrmann, A. Stab-Resistant Polymers—Recent Developments in Materials and Structures. Polymers 2023, 15, 983.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. Wildemann, V.; Staroverov, O.; Strungar, E.; Mugatarov, A.; Kuchukov, A. Mechanical Properties Degradation of Fiberglass Tubes
during Biaxial Proportional Cyclic Loading. Polymers 2023, 15, 2017. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Khan, M.K.A.; Junaedi, H.; Alshahrani, H.; Wagih, A.; Lubineau, G.; Sebaey, T.A. Enhanced Open-Hole Strength and Toughness
of Sandwich Carbon-Kevlar Woven Composite Laminates. Polymers 2023, 15, 2276. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Gahgah, M.; Belaadi, A.; Boumaaza, M.; Alshahrani, H.; Khan, M.K.A. Effect of Number of Tests on the Mechanical Characteristics
of Agave sisalana Yarns for Composites Structures: Statistical Approach. Polymers 2023, 15, 2885. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Leonés, A.; Peponi, L.; García-Martínez, J.-M.; Collar, E.P. Study on the Tensile Behavior of Woven Non-Woven PLA/OLA/MgO
Electrospun Fibers. Polymers 2023, 15, 3973. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Jones, H.; McClements, J.; Ray, D.; Hindle, C.S.; Kalloudis, M.; Koutsos, V. Thermomechanical Properties of Virgin and Recycled
Polypropylene—High-Density Polyethylene Blends. Polymers 2023, 15, 4200. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Zumbardo-Bacelis, G.A.; Peponi, L.; Vargas-Coronado, R.F.; Rodríguez-Velázquez, E.; Alatorre-Meda, M.; Chevallier, P.; Copes, F.;
Mantovani, D.; Abraham, G.A.; Cauich-Rodríguez, J.V. A Comparison of Three-Layer and Single-Layer Small Vascular Grafts
Manufactured via the Roto-Evaporation Method. Polymers 2024, 16, 1314. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Thiem, Q.V.; Nguyen, V.-T.; Phan, D.T.T.; Minh, P.S. Injection Molding Condition Effects on the Mechanical Properties of
Coconut-Wood-Powder-Based Polymer Composite. Polymers 2024, 16, 1225. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.