cd unit 1

1. Explain various phases of a compiler with a neat diagram and example in hinglish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Explain Token, Pattern, and Lexeme with an example.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Explain error recovery strategy in a parser.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
4. Explain the application of compiler technology.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
5. Explain Lexical Analyzer in detail.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6. Explain the Lexical Analyzer generator tool (LEX).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7. Write the algorithm for FIRST and FOLLOW.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8. Explain the structure of a compiler with a diagram.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9. Discuss the role of a lexical analyzer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
10. Explain syntax analyzer in detail.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11. Explain Recursive Descent Parser with an example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
12. *Write the Recursive Descent Parser for the context-free grammar: S → +SS | SS | a.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

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 1. Explain various phases of a compiler with a neat diagram
and example in hinglish

📚 Phases of a Compiler with Diagram and Example

Compiler ek program hai jo High-Level Language (HLL) ko Machine Language (ML) me translate karta
hai. Is process ko achieve karne ke liye, compiler multiple phases me kaam karta hai. Chalo, har phase
ko detail me samajhte hain.

🚀 Phases of a Compiler
1️⃣ Lexical Analysis (Tokenization)
Kaam: Source code ko tokens me todta hai.
Input: Source code
Output: Tokens
Example:

int a = b + 5;

Tokens: `int`, `a`, `=`, `b`, `+`, `5`, `;`

2️⃣ Syntax Analysis (Parsing)

Kaam: Tokens ko grammar rules ke basis par check karta hai.
Input: Tokens
Output: Parse Tree / Syntax Tree
Example:

css

=
/ \
a +
/ \
b 5

3️⃣ Semantic Analysis

Kaam: Meaning ko check karta hai (e.g., type checking, variable declaration).

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 Input: Parse Tree
Output: Annotated Parse Tree
Example:
Agar `b` declare nahi hui hai, toh error throw karega.

4️⃣ Intermediate Code Generation (ICG)

Kaam: Ek intermediate representation (IR) generate karta hai.
Input: Annotated Parse Tree
Output: Intermediate Code
Example:

css

t1 = b + 5
a = t1

5️⃣ Code Optimization

Kaam: Code ko optimize karta hai taaki efficiency badhe aur execution fast ho.
Input: Intermediate Code
Output: Optimized Intermediate Code
Example:

css

a = b + 5

6️⃣ Code Generation

Kaam: Optimized intermediate code ko Machine Code me convert karta hai.
Input: Optimized Intermediate Code
Output: Machine Code
Example:

css

MOV b, R1
ADD 5, R1
MOV R1, a

7️⃣ Symbol Table & Error Handling

Symbol Table: Variables, constants aur functions ki information store karta hai.
Error Handling: Compilation ke time pe errors ko detect aur handle karta hai.

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📝 Diagram of Compiler Phases
plaintext

Source Program
|
v
Lexical Analysis → Tokens
|
v
Syntax Analysis → Parse Tree
|
v
Semantic Analysis → Annotated Tree
|
v
Intermediate Code Generation → Intermediate Code
|
v
Code Optimization → Optimized Intermediate Code
|
v
Code Generation → Target Code
|
v
Target Machine Code

✅ Example Program with Phases

Source Code:

int a = b + 5;

Phases Output:

1. Lexical Analysis: Tokens → `int`, `a`, `=`, `b`, `+`, `5`, `;`
2. Syntax Analysis: Parse Tree banega.
3. Semantic Analysis: Type check karega.
4. Intermediate Code: `t1 = b + 5` → `a = t1`
5. Code Optimization: Direct `a = b + 5`
6. Code Generation: Machine Code instructions generate honge.

Agar koi aur doubt ho toh puchho! 😊

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 2. Explain Token, Pattern, and Lexeme with an example.

📚 Token, Pattern, and Lexeme Explained with Example

Compiler ke Lexical Analysis phase me, Token, Pattern, aur Lexeme ka use hota hai. Chalo, inko detail
me samajhte hain:

🚀 1. Token:
Definition: Token ek category of lexemes hota hai jo compiler recognize karta hai.
Example: Keywords (`int`, `if`, `else`), Identifiers (`a`, `count`), Operators (`+`, `=`).
Explanation: Token ek general classification hai jaise `IDENTIFIER`, `NUMBER`, `KEYWORD`, etc.

Example Code:

int a = b + 5;

Tokens:

`int`→ KEYWORD
`a` → IDENTIFIER
`=` → OPERATOR
`b` → IDENTIFIER
`+` → OPERATOR
`5` → NUMBER
`;` → SPECIAL SYMBOL

🚀 2. Lexeme:
Definition: Lexeme ek sequence of characters hai jo token ke instance ko represent karta hai.
Example: Source code me jo exact word ya symbol likha hota hai, woh lexeme hota hai.

Example Code:

int a = b + 5;

Lexemes:

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 `int`→ Token: KEYWORD
`a` → Token: IDENTIFIER
`=` → Token: OPERATOR
`b` → Token: IDENTIFIER
`+` → Token: OPERATOR
`5` → Token: NUMBER
`;` → Token: SPECIAL SYMBOL

🚀 3. Pattern:
Definition: Pattern ek rule ya regular expression hota hai jo batata hai ki ek lexeme ko kaise
match karna hai.
Example:
`int|float|char` → KEYWORD Pattern
`[a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]*` → IDENTIFIER Pattern
`[0-9]+` → NUMBER Pattern

Example Code:

int a = b + 5;

Patterns:

`int` → Pattern: `int|float|char`

`a`, `b` → Pattern: `[a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]*`
`5` → Pattern: `[0-9]+`

✅ Comparison Table
Term Definition Example
Token Category of lexemes `KEYWORD`, `IDENTIFIER`

Lexeme Actual text from source code `int`, `a`, `5`

Pattern Rule used to identify lexemes `[a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]*`

📝 Summary Example:
c

int count = 10;

Tokens: `KEYWORD`, `IDENTIFIER`, `OPERATOR`, `NUMBER`, `SPECIAL SYMBOL`

Lexemes: `int`, `count`, `=`, `10`, `;`
Patterns: `int|float`, `[a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]*`, `[0-9]+`
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Agar aur doubt ho toh pucho! 😊

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 3. Explain error recovery strategy in a parser.

📚 Error Recovery Strategies in a Parser

Parsing ke dauraan agar syntax error detect hota hai, toh parser ko error recovery strategy ka istemal
karna padta hai taaki parsing process continue ho sake aur zyada se zyada errors detect kiye ja sakein.

Error recovery strategies ka main goal hota hai:

Error ko detect karna.

User ko meaningful error message dena.
Parsing ko continue karna (jitna ho sake).

🚀 Types of Error Recovery Strategies

1️⃣ Panic Mode Recovery
Concept: Parser simply kuch tokens ko skip karta hai jab tak ek synchronization point (e.g.,
semicolon `;` ya curly braces `{ }`) mil na jaaye.
Pros: Simple aur quick recovery. Parsing continue kar sakta hai.
Cons: Kuch valid tokens bhi skip ho sakte hain.

Example:

int a = 5 + ;
int b = 10;

Parser `;` tak skip karega aur next statement `int b = 10;` se parsing continue karega.

2️⃣ Phrase-Level Recovery

Concept: Parser local corrections karta hai, jaise ki missing token ko insert karna ya galat token
ko replace karna.
Pros: Specific error fix hota hai.
Cons: Har error ko correct karna mushkil ho sakta hai.

Example:

int a = 5 +

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 int b = 10;

Parser missing token ko guess karega aur correct karega:

int a = 5 + 0;

3️⃣ Error Productions

Concept: Parser me kuch error rules add kiye jaate hain jo common syntax errors ko handle kar
sakein.
Pros: Specific errors ke liye predefined handling ho sakti hai.
Cons: Har possible error ko predefine karna mushkil hai.

Example Rule:

`if (expr stmt)` ko handle karte waqt agar `)` missing hai, toh error production handle kar lega.

Example Code:

if (x == 5 {
printf("Error detected");
}

4️⃣ Global Correction

Concept: Parser pura program analyze karta hai aur minimum changes karke valid program
generate karne ki koshish karta hai.
Pros: Optimal correction milta hai.
Cons: Computationally expensive aur slow ho sakta hai.

Example:

int a = 5 +
b = 10;

Global correction engine suggest kar sakta hai:

int a = 5 + 0;

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 int b = 10;

✅ Comparison Table
Strategy Approach Pros Cons

Panic Mode Tokens skip karta hai Fast aur simple Valid tokens miss ho sakte hain
Phrase-Level Local correction Specific error fix Har error handle nahi hota

Error Production Predefined error rules Common errors handle Sabhi errors cover nahi honge
Global Correction Minimum global changes Optimal correction Slow aur computationally expensive

📝 Key Takeaways
1. Panic Mode: Quick recovery by skipping tokens.
2. Phrase-Level: Small corrections in syntax.
3. Error Productions: Specific error rules for common mistakes.
4. Global Correction: Tries to minimize changes globally.

Agar aur explanation chahiye toh pucho! 😊

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 4. Explain the application of compiler technology.

📚 Applications of Compiler Technology

Compiler technology ka use sirf programming languages ko high-level code se machine code me
convert karne tak hi simit nahi hai. Yeh technology diverse fields aur applications me use hoti hai.
Chalo, iske major applications ko samajhte hain:

🚀 1. Programming Language Implementation

Role: Compiler ka primary use high-level programming languages (e.g., C, C++, Java, Python) ko
machine-understandable code me convert karna hota hai.
Example:
GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) for C/C++
Javac Compiler for Java

🚀 2. Language Design and Optimization

Role: Compiler technology ka use new programming languages design karne aur existing
languages ko optimize karne me hota hai.
Example:
New features in Python or JavaScript
Performance optimization in Rust or Go

🚀 3. Just-In-Time (JIT) Compilation

Role: Runtime pe source code ko execute karne se pehle optimize karke machine code me convert
karta hai.
Example:
Java Virtual Machine (JVM) ka JIT Compiler
.NET Framework me CLR (Common Language Runtime)

🚀 4. Database Query Languages

Role: SQL queries ko query execution plans me convert karne ke liye compiler technology ka use
hota hai.
Example:
SQL Query Optimizer in databases like MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL

🚀 5. Hardware Description Languages (HDL)

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 Role: Compiler ka use hardware circuits design ke liye HDLs jaise Verilog aur VHDL ko optimize
aur synthesize karne ke liye hota hai.
Example:
FPGA aur ASIC design tools

🚀 6. Embedded Systems
Role: Embedded systems me compiler ka use code ko resource-constrained hardware devices ke
liye optimize karne me hota hai.
Example:
ARM-based microcontrollers ke liye compiler tools

🚀 7. Natural Language Processing (NLP)

Role: NLP tools jaise lexical analyzers aur parsers ka use text processing aur understanding ke
liye hota hai.
Example:
Chatbots (e.g., Dialogflow, Rasa)
Spell checkers aur grammar checkers

🚀 8. Code Analysis and Debugging Tools

Role: Compiler tools ka use code analysis, error detection aur debugging ke liye hota hai.
Example:
Static Analysis Tools: SonarQube, Coverity
Debuggers: GDB, LLDB

🚀 9. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)

Role: ML frameworks me code optimization aur efficient hardware utilization ke liye compilers ka
use hota hai.
Example:
TensorFlow Lite Compiler
PyTorch JIT Compiler

🚀 10. Operating Systems

Role: OS ke development aur performance optimization ke liye compiler ka use hota hai.
Example:
Linux Kernel Compilation (GCC use karke)

✅ Summary Table
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 Application Area Example Tools Purpose
Programming Languages GCC, Javac Source to machine code
JIT Compilation JVM, CLR Runtime optimization

Database Systems SQL Query Optimizer Query execution plans

Embedded Systems ARM Compiler Resource optimization
HDL Design Verilog, VHDL Hardware synthesis
NLP Tools Spell Checkers Text analysis

Debugging Tools GDB, SonarQube Code analysis & debugging

AI/ML Frameworks TensorFlow Lite Hardware optimization
Operating Systems Linux Kernel System performance

📝 Key Takeaways:
Compiler technology har jagah hai – from software development se lekar hardware design tak.
Optimization aur efficiency ensure karna iska main goal hota hai.
New technologies jaise AI/ML frameworks aur JIT compilers bhi compiler techniques ka use karte
hain.

Agar aur explanation chahiye toh pucho! 😊

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 5. Explain Lexical Analyzer in detail.

📚 Lexical Analyzer (Scanner) in Detail

Lexical Analyzer, jo Compiler Design ka pehla phase hota hai, source code ko tokens me todta hai. Yeh
phase lexical errors ko detect karta hai aur source code ko compiler ke liye readable banata hai.

🚀 1. What is a Lexical Analyzer?

Definition: Lexical Analyzer ek software component hai jo source code ke characters ko tokens
me break karta hai.
Input: Source Code
Output: Tokens
Purpose:
Code ko meaningful tokens me divide karna.
Unwanted characters aur spaces ko ignore karna.
Errors detect karna jaise invalid symbols ya undefined characters.
Symbol Table me variables, constants aur function names ko store karna.

🚀 2. Role of Lexical Analyzer

1. Token Generation: Source code ke characters ko meaningful tokens me convert karta hai.
2. Whitespace Removal: Spaces, tabs aur unnecessary newlines ko remove karta hai.
3. Error Handling: Illegal symbols ya invalid identifiers ko detect karta hai.
4. Symbol Table Management: Variables aur identifiers ko symbol table me store karta hai.
5. Comment Removal: Source code ke comments ko ignore karta hai.

🚀 3. Tokens, Lexemes, and Patterns

Token: Yeh ek category hota hai jo code ke specific element ko represent karta hai (e.g., `KEYWORD`,
`IDENTIFIER`, `NUMBER`).
Lexeme: Actual text jo token ko represent karta hai (e.g., `int`, `a`, `5`).
Pattern: Ek rule ya regular expression jo batata hai ki kaunsa lexeme kaunsa token hai (e.g., `[0-
9]+` for numbers).

Example:

int a = b + 5;

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 Lexeme Token Pattern
int KEYWORD int
a IDENTIFIER [a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]*

= OPERATOR =
b IDENTIFIER [a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z0-9]*
+ OPERATOR +

5 NUMBER [0-9]+
; SYMBOL ;

🚀 4. Process of Lexical Analysis

1. Scanning: Source code ko ek character sequence ke form me scan karta hai.
2. Grouping: Characters ko tokens me group karta hai.
3. Pattern Matching: Regular expressions ka use karke patterns ko match karta hai.
4. Token Generation: Matching hone par tokens generate karta hai.
5. Error Reporting: Invalid characters ya undefined patterns par error report karta hai.

🚀 5. Example of Lexical Analysis

Source Code:

int x = 10;

Steps:

1. Scanning: `int`, `x`, `=`, `10`, `;`

2. Token Generation:
`int` → `KEYWORD`
`x` → `IDENTIFIER`
`=` → `OPERATOR`
`10` → `NUMBER`
`;` → `SYMBOL`

Output:

plaintext

(KEYWORD, int)
(IDENTIFIER, x)
(OPERATOR, =)
(NUMBER, 10)
(SYMBOL, ;)

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🚀 6. Lexical Errors
Common Lexical Errors:

1. Invalid Characters: Unknown symbols like `@`, `#` in code.

2. Unclosed Strings: Missing closing quotes (`"Hello`).
3. Illegal Identifiers: Identifiers starting with digits (e.g., `1var`).

Error Handling:

Error message display karta hai.

Parsing continue karne ke liye invalid lexeme ko skip karta hai.

🚀 7. Lexical Analyzer vs Parser

Aspect Lexical Analyzer Parser
Function Code ko tokens me todta hai Syntax check karta hai
Input Source Code Tokens

Output Tokens Parse Tree

Error Detected Lexical Errors Syntax Errors

🚀 8. Tools for Lexical Analysis

1. Lex (Lexical Analyzer Generator)
2. Flex (Fast Lexical Analyzer)
3. ANTLR (Another Tool for Language Recognition)

Example Lex Program:

lex

digit [0-9]
letter [a-zA-Z]

%%
{digit}+ printf("NUMBER");
{letter}+ printf("IDENTIFIER");
"=" printf("OPERATOR");
%%

✅ Key Takeaways:
1. Lexical Analyzer: First phase of a compiler, generates tokens.
2. Tokens: Logical unit representing keywords, identifiers, operators.
3. Lexemes: Actual text corresponding to tokens.
4. Tools: Lex, Flex, ANTLR.
5. Error Handling: Detect invalid characters, illegal identifiers.

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Agar aur clarity chahiye ya koi specific example samajhna ho, toh pooch lena! 😊

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 6. Explain the Lexical Analyzer generator tool (LEX).

📚 Lexical Analyzer Generator Tool (LEX)

LEX ek popular tool hai jo lexical analyzers (scanners) banane ke liye use hota hai. Yeh programmer ke
liye time-saving aur efficient hota hai, kyunki manually lexical analyzer likhne ki zarurat nahi hoti.

🚀 What is LEX?
Definition:
LEX ek Lexical Analyzer Generator hai jo regular expressions ko use karke source code ke tokens
ko identify karta hai.
Input: Lex Specification File (rules aur patterns defined hoti hain).
Output: C Program (scanner/lexer ke form me).

🚀 Working of LEX
1. Specification File: User ek `.l` extension wala file likhta hai jo token definitions aur rules contain
karta hai.
2. Lex Compiler: LEX tool specification file ko process karta hai aur ek C program generate karta hai.
3. Scanner Output: Generated C program ko compile karke ek executable file banti hai, jo tokens ko
recognize kar ke output karti hai.

🚀 Structure of LEX Program

LEX file teen sections me divided hota hai:

lex

{Definitions}
%%
{Rules}
%%
{Auxiliary Functions}

1️⃣ Definitions Section:

Yaha par macros aur global declarations hoti hain.
Example:

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 lex

digit [0-9]
letter [a-zA-Z]

2️⃣ Rules Section:

Regular expressions aur unke corresponding actions define kiye jaate hain.
Example:

lex

{digit}+ printf("NUMBER\n");
{letter}+ printf("IDENTIFIER\n");
"=" printf("OPERATOR\n");

3️⃣ Auxiliary Functions Section:

Optional section hota hai jisme helper C functions define hote hain.

🚀 Example: Simple LEX Program

Goal: Recognize identifiers, numbers, and operators.

LEX Code (file: `example.l`):

lex

digit [0-9]
letter [a-zA-Z]

%%
{letter}({letter}|{digit})* printf("IDENTIFIER: %s\n", yytext);
{digit}+ printf("NUMBER: %s\n", yytext);
"=" printf("OPERATOR: =\n");
"+" printf("OPERATOR: +\n");
";" printf("SPECIAL SYMBOL: ;\n");
[ \t\n]+ /* Ignore whitespace */
. printf("UNKNOWN: %s\n", yytext);
%%
int main() {
yylex(); // Calls the scanner
return 0;
}

Steps to Execute:

1. Save the file as `example.l`.

2. Run the LEX compiler:

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 bash

lex example.l

3. Compile the generated C program:

bash

gcc lex.yy.c -o scanner

4. Run the scanner:

bash

./scanner

Input:

int x = 10 + 20;

Output:

plaintext

IDENTIFIER: int
IDENTIFIER: x
OPERATOR: =
NUMBER: 10
OPERATOR: +
NUMBER: 20
SPECIAL SYMBOL: ;

🚀 Components of LEX Tool

1. Input Buffer: Input code characters ko buffer karta hai.
2. Scanner: Rules ke basis par tokens ko recognize karta hai.
3. Symbol Table: Identifiers aur constants ko store karta hai.
4. Output: Tokens aur error messages generate karta hai.

🚀 Advantages of LEX
1. Efficiency: Regular expressions ki wajah se high performance scanning hota hai.
2. Automation: Manual lexer banane ki zarurat nahi hoti.
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 3. Error Handling: Undefined patterns ke liye automatic error reporting.
4. Portability: Generated C code kisi bhi platform par run ho sakta hai.

🚀 Limitations of LEX
1. Limited to Regular Languages: Complex grammars handle nahi kar sakta.
2. Integration Needed: LEX ko parser (e.g., YACC) ke saath integrate karna padta hai.
3. Debugging Issues: Large LEX files me debugging mushkil ho sakta hai.

✅ Key Takeaways:
LEX: Lexical analyzer generator jo regular expressions ka use karta hai.
Input: Specification file with token patterns.
Output: C program acting as a scanner.
Use cases: Language compilers, interpreters, data filters.

Agar aur detail chahiye ya koi confusion ho, toh zarur puchho! 😊

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 7. Write the algorithm for FIRST and FOLLOW.

📚 Algorithm for FIRST and FOLLOW Sets

FIRST aur FOLLOW sets Syntax Analysis (Parsing) me grammar ke terminals aur non-terminals ke
behavior ko define karte hain. Yeh sets Top-Down Parsing algorithms (e.g., LL(1) Parser) me use hote
hain.

🚀 1. FIRST Set
📌 Definition:
FIRST(X): Set of terminals (or ε, epsilon) jo kisi non-terminal ya production ke starting symbols ho
sakte hain.

📌 Rules for Computing FIRST(X):

1. If X is a terminal:
FIRST(X) = { X }
2. If X → ε (epsilon) is a production:
Add ε to FIRST(X).
3. If X → Y₁ Y₂ ... Yₙ:
Add FIRST(Y₁) to FIRST(X).
If Y₁ derives ε, move to Y₂ and repeat.
Continue until a terminal is found or no ε is in FIRST(Yᵢ).
4. If X → Y₁ Y₂ ... Yₙ and all Y₁, Y₂ ... Yₙ can derive ε:
Add ε to FIRST(X).

📌 Algorithm for FIRST(X):

plaintext

Algorithm FIRST(X):
1. Initialize FIRST(X) = {}
2. If X is a terminal, add X to FIRST(X) and return.
3. If X → ε is a production, add ε to FIRST(X).
4. For each production X → Y₁ Y₂ ... Yₙ:
a. For each Yᵢ:
i. Add FIRST(Yᵢ) (excluding ε) to FIRST(X).
ii. If ε ∈ FIRST(Yᵢ), continue to Yᵢ₊₁.
iii. If ε ∉ FIRST(Yᵢ), break the loop.
b. If all Y₁ Y₂ ... Yₙ can derive ε, add ε to FIRST(X).
5. Return FIRST(X).

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📚 Example of FIRST Set:
Grammar:

1. `E → T E'`
2. `T → F T'`
3. `F → ( E ) | id`

Solution:

FIRST(E) = FIRST(T) = FIRST(F) = { `(`, `id` }

FIRST(T') = { `*`, ε }
FIRST(E') = { `+`, ε }

🚀 2. FOLLOW Set
📌 Definition:
FOLLOW(A): Set of terminals jo kisi non-terminal `A` ke baad aa sakte hain.

📌 Rules for Computing FOLLOW(A):

1. If A is the start symbol:
Add `$` (end of input marker) to FOLLOW(A).
2. If there is a production A → αBβ:
Add FIRST(β) (excluding ε) to FOLLOW(B).
If ε ∈ FIRST(β), add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).
3. If there is a production A → αB:
Add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).

📌 Algorithm for FOLLOW(A):

plaintext

Algorithm FOLLOW(A):
1. Initialize FOLLOW(A) = {}
2. If A is the start symbol, add $ to FOLLOW(A).
3. For each production rule:
a. For A → αBβ:
i. Add FIRST(β) (excluding ε) to FOLLOW(B).
ii. If ε ∈ FIRST(β) or β is empty, add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).
b. For A → αB:
i. Add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).
4. Repeat until no changes occur in FOLLOW sets.
5. Return FOLLOW(A).

📚 Example of FOLLOW Set:

Grammar:

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 1. `E → T E'`
2. `T → F T'`
3. `F → ( E ) | id`

Solution:

FOLLOW(E) = { `)`, `$` }

FOLLOW(T) = { `+`, `)` }
FOLLOW(F) = { `*`, `+`, `)` }

🚀 Summary Table
Property FIRST(X) FOLLOW(X)
Definition Start symbols of X Symbols after X
Includes Terminals, ε Terminals, `$`
Use Top-Down Parsing LL(1) Parsing

Algorithm Focus Starts from the start of productions Follows symbols after non-terminal

✅ Key Takeaways:
1. FIRST(X): Starting terminals of a non-terminal or production.
2. FOLLOW(X): Terminals that can follow a non-terminal.
3. Both sets are essential for LL(1) Parsing Table Construction.
4. Algorithms are iterative and depend on grammar rules.

Agar aur clarity chahiye ya example solve karna ho, toh pooch lena! 😊

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 8. Explain the structure of a compiler with a diagram.

📚 Structure of a Compiler with Diagram

Compiler ek complex software system hai jo high-level language ko machine code me convert karta hai.
Yeh process multiple phases me complete hota hai, jisme har phase ka ek specific task hota hai.

🚀 1. Phases of a Compiler
Compiler do main parts me divide hota hai:

1. Analysis Phase (Front-end)

2. Synthesis Phase (Back-end)

📌 Analysis Phase (Front-end)

Yeh phase source code ko analyze karta hai aur ek Intermediate Representation (IR) generate karta
hai.

Lexical Analysis: Source code ko tokens me todta hai.

Syntax Analysis: Tokens ka syntax check karta hai aur Parse Tree banata hai.
Semantic Analysis: Meaning check karta hai aur type-checking karta hai.
Intermediate Code Generation: Intermediate representation generate hota hai.

📌 Synthesis Phase (Back-end)

Yeh phase intermediate code ko optimize aur machine code me convert karta hai.

Intermediate Code Optimization: Code ko optimize karta hai taaki execution faster ho.
Code Generation: Target machine code generate hota hai.
Code Optimization: Machine-specific optimization karta hai taaki performance better ho.

🚀 2. Diagram of Compiler Structure

lua

+------------------------+
| Source Program |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------+------------+
| Lexical Analysis |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------+------------+

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 | Syntax Analysis |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------+------------+
| Semantic Analysis |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------+------------+
| Intermediate Code Gen. |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------+------------+
| Code Optimization |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------+------------+
| Code Generation |
+-----------+------------+
|
v
+-----------+------------+
| Target Code |
+------------------------+

🚀 3. Detailed Explanation of Phases

1. Lexical Analysis (Scanner)

Input: Source Code

Output: Tokens
Task: Characters ko meaningful tokens me todta hai.
Example: `int a = 5;` → (`KEYWORD`, `IDENTIFIER`, `OPERATOR`, `NUMBER`, `SEMICOLON`)

2. Syntax Analysis (Parser)

Input: Tokens
Output: Parse Tree
Task: Syntax rules ko check karta hai aur parse tree generate karta hai.
Example: Syntax Error detection jaise `int = 5 a;`

3. Semantic Analysis

Input: Parse Tree

Output: Annotated Parse Tree
Task: Meaning aur type-checking karta hai.
Example: `int a = "hello";` (Type Mismatch Error)

4. Intermediate Code Generation

Input: Annotated Parse Tree

Output: Intermediate Representation (e.g., Three-Address Code)
Task: Source code ko machine-independent intermediate format me convert karta hai.
Example: `a = b + c` → `t1 = b + c; a = t1;`

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5. Code Optimization

Input: Intermediate Code

Output: Optimized Intermediate Code
Task: Code ko optimize karta hai taaki execution fast aur efficient ho.
Example: Redundant code ko remove karna.

6. Code Generation

Input: Optimized Intermediate Code

Output: Target Machine Code
Task: Machine-readable assembly ya binary code generate karna.
Example: x86 Assembly Instructions.

7. Code Optimization (Machine Level)

Input: Target Code

Output: Optimized Target Code
Task: Hardware-specific optimization karta hai.

🚀 4. Symbol Table and Error Handler

Symbol Table:

Identifiers (variables, functions, constants) ka metadata store karta hai.

Example: Variable `int a;` ka type aur scope store karta hai.

Error Handler:

Errors ko detect aur handle karta hai har phase me (Lexical, Syntax, Semantic).
Example: Syntax Errors, Type Errors, Runtime Errors.

🚀 5. Front-end vs Back-end
Aspect Front-end (Analysis) Back-end (Synthesis)
Focus Source Code Analysis Target Code Generation
Phases Lexical, Syntax, Semantic Optimization, Code Generation
Output Intermediate Code Machine Code
Error Handling Syntax & Semantic Errors Runtime & Logical Errors

✅ Key Takeaways:
1. Compiler do main parts me divide hota hai: Front-end aur Back-end.
2. Har phase ka ek specific task hota hai jo code ko efficient aur optimized banata hai.
3. Symbol Table aur Error Handler har phase me support provide karte hain.
4. Diagram se clear hota hai ki har phase ek dusre se connected hai.

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Agar diagram ya kisi phase me aur explanation chahiye, toh zaroor poochho! 😊

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 9. Discuss the role of a lexical analyzer

📚 Role of a Lexical Analyzer in Compiler Design

Lexical Analyzer compiler ka first phase hota hai jo source code ko input ke roop mein accept karta hai
aur usko tokens me convert karta hai. Yeh phase compiler ke front-end ka part hota hai aur iska main
kaam code ko smallest meaningful units (tokens) me todna hota hai.

🚀 What is a Lexical Analyzer?

Definition: Lexical Analyzer ek scanner hota hai jo source code ke characters ko scan karke
tokens me todta hai.
Input: Source code (character stream)
Output: Tokens (e.g., `KEYWORD`, `IDENTIFIER`, `NUMBER`, `OPERATOR`)
Example:

int x = 10;

Tokens: `KEYWORD (int)`, `IDENTIFIER (x)`, `OPERATOR (=)`, `NUMBER (10)`, `SEMICOLON (;)`

🚀 Key Roles of Lexical Analyzer

1. Breaking Input into Tokens

Source code ko tokens me todta hai jo smallest meaningful units hote hain.
Example: `if (x > 0)`
Tokens: `KEYWORD (if)`, `SYMBOL (()`, `IDENTIFIER (x)`, `OPERATOR (>)`, `NUMBER (0)`, `SYMBOL ())`

2. Removing Whitespace and Comments

Extra whitespaces, tabs, aur comments ko ignore karta hai.

Example:

// This is a comment
int a = 5;

Comment ko ignore karega aur sirf tokens generate karega.

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3. Identifying Lexemes and Generating Tokens

Lexemes: Source code ke substrings jo token me map hote hain.

Example:
Lexeme: `int` → Token: `KEYWORD`

4. Error Detection

Lexical errors jaise invalid characters ya unknown symbols ko detect karta hai.
Example:

int @a = 5;

Error: Invalid symbol `@`.

5. Symbol Table Interaction

Identifiers aur literals ko symbol table me store karta hai jisme unka type, value, aur scope
defined hota hai.

6. Provide Input to Syntax Analyzer

Tokens ko Syntax Analyzer ke liye pass karta hai.

Syntax Analyzer parse tree banane ke liye tokens ka use karta hai.

7. Handling Literals and Constants

Numerical values aur string literals ko tokens me convert karta hai.

Example: `"Hello"` → `STRING_LITERAL`

🚀 Token, Lexeme, and Pattern in Lexical Analysis

1. Token: Symbolic name (e.g., `KEYWORD`, `IDENTIFIER`)
2. Lexeme: Actual substring from source code (e.g., `int`, `x`)
3. Pattern: Rule ya regular expression jo token ko define karta hai.

Example:

int x = 10;

Lexeme Token Pattern

int KEYWORD `int`
x IDENTIFIER `[a-zA-Z]+`

= OPERATOR `=`

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 Lexeme Token Pattern
10 NUMBER `[0-9]+`

🚀 Lexical Errors
Lexical Analyzer me kuch common errors hote hain:

1. Invalid Characters: Unsupported symbols (`@`, `#`)

2. Unterminated String Literal: Missing closing quote (`"Hello`)
3. Invalid Numbers: Wrong format (`12.34.56`)

Error Handling Strategies:

Panic Mode: Next valid token tak skip karna.

Error Reporting: Error ko detect karna aur report karna.

🚀 Advantages of Lexical Analyzer

1. Simplifies Parsing: Parser ko token stream milta hai, jisse syntax analysis easy ho jata hai.
2. Error Detection: Early-stage error detection (e.g., invalid characters).
3. Efficient Tokenization: Streamlined approach for processing source code.
4. Improves Compiler Design: Separation of lexical analysis and syntax analysis makes compiler
modular.

🚀 Disadvantages of Lexical Analyzer

1. Complex Patterns: Handling complex patterns can be challenging.
2. Dependency on Regular Expressions: Limited to patterns expressible via regular expressions.
3. Error Handling: Limited ability to correct errors.

🚀 Diagram of Lexical Analyzer

sql

+---------------------------------------------+
| Source Program (Characters) |
+-------------------------+-------------------+
|
v
+-------------------------+-------------------+
| Lexical Analyzer (Scanner) |
+-------------------------+-------------------+
|
+--------------+-----------------+
| |
v v
+-----------------+ +------------------+
| Symbol Table | | Token Stream |
+-----------------+ +------------------+

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✅ Key Takeaways:
1. Lexical Analyzer source code ko tokens me todta hai.
2. Whitespace aur comments ko ignore karta hai.
3. Errors detect karta hai aur symbol table maintain karta hai.
4. Tokens ko Syntax Analyzer ko pass karta hai.
5. Yeh phase efficiency aur clarity improve karta hai compiler design me.

Agar aur clarity chahiye ya koi specific example solve karna ho, toh zaroor poochho! 😊

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 10. Explain syntax analyzer in detail.

📚 Syntax Analyzer in Compiler Design

Syntax Analyzer, jo Parser ke naam se bhi jaana jaata hai, compiler ka second phase hota hai jo tokens
ko grammar rules ke according arrange karta hai aur syntax errors ko detect karta hai. Iska main kaam
Parse Tree ya Syntax Tree banana hota hai, jisme program ka structure define hota hai.

🚀 What is a Syntax Analyzer?

Definition: Syntax Analyzer (Parser) ek compiler ka component hai jo lexical analyzer se mile
tokens ko context-free grammar (CFG) ke rules ke through process karta hai. Yeh tokens ka
sequence check karta hai ki woh grammar ke according hai ya nahi.
Input: Token stream (from lexical analyzer)
Output: Parse Tree (Syntax Tree) ya error messages (agar syntax galat ho)
Purpose: Yeh ensure karta hai ki program ka structure valid hai, jise context-free grammar se
match kiya jaa sake.

🚀 Role of Syntax Analyzer (Parser)

1. Grammar Checking: Parser grammar rules ko apply karke check karta hai ki given tokens
sequence sahi hai ya nahi.
2. Parse Tree Creation: Syntax Tree ko generate karta hai jo program ke structure ko represent karta
hai.
3. Error Detection: Agar program ki syntax invalid hai, toh syntax errors ko detect karta hai aur error
messages deta hai.
4. Input to Semantic Analyzer: Agar syntax correct hai, toh parse tree ko Semantic Analyzer ko
pass karta hai.

🚀 Types of Parsers
Parsers ko mainly do types me classify kiya jaata hai:

1. Top-Down Parsers

Start symbol se begin karte hain aur grammar ke rules ko apply karke syntax tree banate hain.
Examples:
Recursive Descent Parsing
LL(1) Parsing (Left-to-right, Left-most derivation)

2. Bottom-Up Parsers

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 Tokens ko bottom se upar tak process karte hain. Yeh reverse order me production rules ko apply
karte hain.
Examples:
Shift-Reduce Parsing
LR Parsing (Left-to-right, Right-most derivation)

🚀 How Syntax Analyzer Works

1. Input: Lexical Analyzer se tokens milte hain.
2. Token Stream Processing: Parser, tokens ko grammar ke rules ke through process karta hai.
3. Parse Tree Generation: Agar input valid hai, toh parse tree create hota hai jo grammar ke rules
ke according hota hai.
4. Error Handling: Agar koi syntax error hota hai, toh parser error message generate karta hai.

🚀 Components of a Syntax Analyzer

1. Input Buffer: Lexical analyzer se tokens receive karta hai.
2. Parser Stack: Intermediate data ko store karta hai.
3. Parser Tables: Grammar ke rules aur valid transitions ko define karta hai.
4. Error Handling: Invalid syntax ko detect karta hai aur report karta hai.

🚀 Example of Syntax Analysis (Parse Tree)

Grammar:

1. `E → E + T`
2. `E → T`
3. `T → T * F`
4. `T → F`
5. `F → (E)`
6. `F → id`

Expression:
`id + id * id`

Step-by-Step Parsing:

1. Input Tokens:
`id`, `+`, `id`, `*`, `id`

2. Parsing Using LL(1):

Parse tree generate karne ke liye grammar rules apply karte hain.

E
|
E + T
/ \

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 T T * F
| |
F F
| |
id id

Final Parse Tree:

E
/ \
E T+
/ / \
T T * F
| | |
F F id
| |
id id

🚀 Types of Parsers in Detail

1. Recursive Descent Parsing

Description: Top-down approach hai jisme har non-terminal ke liye ek function likha jaata hai. Yeh
method backtracking use kar sakta hai agar current choice fail hoti hai.
Advantages:
Simple to implement.
Naturally supports left-recursive grammars.
Disadvantages:
Inefficient for complex grammars.
Backtracking ki wajah se performance problem ho sakti hai.

2. LL(1) Parsing

Description: Left-to-right, Left-most derivation se parsing karta hai. Yeh non-recursive approach
hai jisme parsing table use hota hai.
Advantages:
Efficient parsing.
No backtracking required.
Disadvantages:
Left recursion ko handle nahi kar sakta.
Grammar ko transform karna padta hai.

3. Shift-Reduce Parsing

Description: Bottom-up approach hai jo stack-based parsing hoti hai. Yeh approach shift (move
input symbol to stack) aur reduce (apply production rule) operations use karta hai.
Advantages:
Efficient for large grammars.
Supports bottom-up derivations.

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 Disadvantages:
More complex to implement than LL parsers.
Difficult to handle ambiguity in grammar.

4. LR Parsing

Description: Bottom-up approach hai jisme LR parsing table use hota hai. Yeh shift-reduce
parsing ka advanced version hai. LR parsers context-free grammars ke liye efficient hote hain.
Advantages:
Efficient and can parse large grammars.
No backtracking required.
Disadvantages:
More complex to implement than LL(1).
Requires detailed parse tables.

🚀 Error Detection and Handling in Syntax Analyzer

Error Detection:
Parser token stream ko grammar rules se match karke syntax errors ko detect karta hai. Agar koi
mismatch hoti hai, toh error message generate hota hai.
Error Recovery Strategies:
1. Panic Mode: Error ke baad program ko next valid token tak skip karte hain.
2. Phrase Level Recovery: Errors ko fix karte hue program ko valid tokens tak le jaate hain.
3. Contextual Error Recovery: Detailed context check karke error ko fix karte hain.

✅ Key Takeaways:
1. Syntax Analyzer (Parser) ka role grammar rules ke through program ka structure verify karna
hota hai.
2. Yeh parse tree generate karta hai jo source code ka structure represent karta hai.
3. Top-Down aur Bottom-Up parsers hote hain.
4. Parser ko efficient banana zaruri hai taaki parsing fast ho.
5. Error detection aur error recovery syntax analyzer ke important tasks hain.

Agar aapko koi specific example ya aur detail chahiye, toh zarur poochho! 😊

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 11. Explain Recursive Descent Parser with an example

📚 Recursive Descent Parser

Recursive Descent Parsing ek top-down parsing technique hai jisme har non-terminal ke liye ek
separate function likha jaata hai. Yeh approach recursive function calls ka use karke grammar rules ko
process karta hai. Is technique me backtracking ka concept hota hai, jisme agar ek production rule fail
ho jata hai toh parser kisi aur rule ko try karta hai.

🚀 How Recursive Descent Parser Works

1. Start with the start symbol: Parsing process ko start symbol se start kiya jaata hai.
2. Match the input with the rules: Non-terminal ke liye ek function call kiya jaata hai, jo grammar
rule ke according input ko match karta hai.
3. Recursive calls: Har non-terminal ko recursively process kiya jaata hai.
4. Backtracking (if necessary): Agar kisi rule ke through match nahi ho raha, toh backtrack karke
next possible rule try kiya jaata hai.

🚀 Structure of Recursive Descent Parser

Har non-terminal ke liye ek function hota hai jo uski corresponding production ko implement karta hai.
Grammar Example:
Consider the following simple grammar:

mathematica

E → E + T
E → T
T → id

Parser Functions:

1. E()
2. T()

Recursive Descent Parser Code:

python

# A simple Recursive Descent Parser

# Global input tokens list

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 tokens = ['id', '+', 'id']
current_token = 0 # Pointer to the current token

# Function to parse 'E' (Expression)

def E():
T() # 'E' can be a 'T'
while current_token < len(tokens) and tokens[current_token] == '+':
match('+') # Match '+' token
T() # After '+' an expression (T) should follow

# Function to parse 'T' (Term)

def T():
match('id') # 'T' must be an 'id'

# Function to match a token and move to the next token

def match(expected_token):
global current_token
if current_token < len(tokens) and tokens[current_token] == expected_token:
current_token += 1 # Move to the next token
else:
raise SyntaxError(f"Expected {expected_token}, but got {tokens[current_token]}")

# Driver code to parse the input tokens

E()

if current_token == len(tokens):
print("Parsing Successful!")
else:
print("Parsing Failed!")

Explanation of the Recursive Descent Parser:

1. E() function:
`E()` function ko sabse pehle call kiya jaata hai. Yeh function T() ko call karke ek term process
karta hai.
Uske baad, agar + symbol milta hai, toh `match('+')` function call hota hai, aur `T()` ko
dubara call karke next expression ko process kiya jaata hai.
2. T() function:
function ko call karte hi, hum id ko match karte hain (jo humare grammar me term ka
`T()`
part hai).
3. match() function:
`match()`function token ko check karta hai aur agar expected token milta hai, toh pointer ko
next token par move kar deta hai.
Agar expected token nahi milta, toh SyntaxError raise hota hai.

Step-by-Step Example

Input Tokens:
`id + id`

1. Initial Call:
Parser `E()` ko call karta hai. Ab `E()` function ke andar `T()` ko call kiya jaata hai.
2. T() Call:
`T()` function ko call karte hi, id ko match kiya jaata hai. Token pointer move hoke next token (`+`)
pe chala jaata hai.

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 3. Back to E():
Ab `E()` function dobara check karta hai ki kya next token + hai. Haan, token `+` milta hai, toh
`match('+')` function call hota hai aur token pointer next token (`id`) pe move ho jaata hai.

4. T() Call Again:

Ab `T()` function ko dubara call kiya jaata hai aur id ko match kiya jaata hai.

5. Parsing Complete:
Agar input tokens successfully parse ho jaate hain aur token pointer end of tokens tak pahuch
jaata hai, toh parsing successful hota hai.

🚀 Advantages of Recursive Descent Parsing:

1. Easy to Implement:
Recursive Descent parser ko implement karna simple hota hai, especially for small grammars.
2. Clear Structure:
Har non-terminal ke liye ek function defined hota hai, jo grammar ko easily represent karta hai.
3. Backtracking Support:
Agar ek rule fail hota hai, toh parser backtrack karke dusra rule try kar sakta hai.

🚀 Disadvantages of Recursive Descent Parsing:

1. Left Recursion Issues:
Recursive Descent parser left-recursive grammars ko directly handle nahi kar sakta. Example:

css

A → Aα | β

Aise cases me parser infinite recursion me chala jaata hai.

2. Complexity with Large Grammars:
Agar grammar complex ho jaaye, toh parser ka code bhi complex ho sakta hai aur recursive calls
ke saath performance issues ho sakte hain.
3. Limited to LL(k) grammars:
Yeh method LL(1) grammars ke liye best kaam karta hai, jisme ek token ka lookahead hota hai.
Complex grammars ko handle karna difficult ho sakta hai.

🚀 Example of Left-Recursion Issue

Consider a grammar with left recursion:

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 r

E → E + T | T
T → id

Agar hum is grammar ko directly Recursive Descent parser me implement karte hain, toh yeh infinite
recursion ka cause ban sakta hai.

Key Takeaways:

1. Recursive Descent Parsing ek simple top-down parsing technique hai jisme har non-terminal ke
liye function likha jaata hai.
2. Yeh technique backtracking ka use karti hai agar ek production rule fail hota hai.
3. Recursive Descent parsers left recursion ko handle nahi kar paate aur complex grammars ke liye
inefficient ho sakte hain.
4. Yeh parser LL(1) grammars ke liye effective hai.

Agar aapko koi aur clarification chahiye ya additional example ki zarurat hai, toh bataiye! 😊

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 12. *Write the Recursive Descent Parser for the context-free
grammar: S → +SS | SS | a.

📚 Recursive Descent Parser for the Grammar:

Given the context-free grammar:

css

S → +SS | SS | a

This grammar defines a recursive structure where:

`S` can be either `+SS` (a `+` followed by two `S`),

`S` can be two `S` (concatenation of two `S`),
`S` can be the terminal symbol `a`.

We will now write the Recursive Descent Parser for this grammar.

🚀 Step-by-Step Explanation:
1. We will define a function `S()` to handle non-terminal `S` and process it according to the three
rules of the grammar:
Rule 1: `S → +SS`
Rule 2: `S → SS`
Rule 3: `S → a`
2. The parser will use a global token list which will be parsed one by one. We will define a `match()`
function to consume the current token and move to the next one.
3. The parsing process will proceed recursively by matching the tokens with the grammar rules.

🚀 Recursive Descent Parser Code:

python

# Global token list (input)

tokens = ['a', '+', 'a', 'a']
current_token = 0 # Pointer to the current token

# Function to parse the non-terminal 'S'

def S():
global current_token

# Rule 1: S → +SS
if current_token < len(tokens) and tokens[current_token] == '+':

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 match('+') # Consume the '+' symbol
S() # Parse first S
S() # Parse second S

# Rule 2: S → SS
elif current_token < len(tokens) and tokens[current_token] == 'a':
S() # Parse first S
S() # Parse second S

# Rule 3: S → a
elif current_token < len(tokens) and tokens[current_token] == 'a':
match('a') # Consume the 'a' symbol

else:
raise SyntaxError("Invalid syntax")

# Function to match the expected token and move to the next token
def match(expected_token):
global current_token
if current_token < len(tokens) and tokens[current_token] == expected_token:
current_token += 1 # Move to the next token
else:
raise SyntaxError(f"Expected {expected_token}, but got {tokens[current_token]}")

# Driver code to parse the input tokens

try:
S() # Start parsing with the start symbol 'S'
if current_token == len(tokens):
print("Parsing Successful!")
else:
print("Parsing Failed!")
except SyntaxError as e:
print(f"Syntax Error: {e}")

Explanation of the Parser:

1. Global Input Tokens:

We define the input tokens as `['a', '+', 'a', 'a']`. These tokens will be parsed in
sequence.
2. `S()` Function (Recursive Descent):
The `S()` function processes the current token according to the rules of the grammar.
Rule 1 (`S → +SS`): If the current token is a `+`, the parser will first match the `+`, then
recursively call `S()` for the two subsequent `S` non-terminals.
Rule 2 (`S → SS`): If the current token is `a`, the parser will recursively call `S()` for two
consecutive `S` non-terminals.
Rule 3 (`S → a`): If the current token is `a`, the parser will consume the token and proceed.
3. `match()` Function:
The `match()` function checks if the current token matches the expected token. If it matches,
the token pointer (`current_token`) is incremented; otherwise, a syntax error is raised.
4. Driver Code:
The driver code starts by calling `S()` to begin the parsing process. It checks if the entire
input has been successfully parsed by comparing `current_token` with the length of the token
list.

Step-by-Step Parsing Example:

For the input `['a', '+', 'a', 'a']`:

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 1. Start with `S()` function:
`S()` first checks for the production rule `S → +SS`, but the current token is `a`, so it skips this
rule.
2. Match Rule `S → SS`:
Since the first token is `a`, we apply the rule `S → SS` and recursively call `S()` for the first
`S`:
The first `S()` matches `a`, consumes `a`, and moves the `current_token` to the next
token (`+`).
3. Second Recursive Call to `S()`:
Now, we process the second `S()`. The current token is `+`, so we apply the rule `S → +SS`,
consume the `+`, and recursively call `S()` twice:
First `S()` matches `a` (consumes `a`).
Second `S()` matches `a` (consumes `a`).
4. Completion:
The `current_token` pointer has moved through all tokens, and the parsing is successful.

Key Takeaways:

1. Recursive Descent Parser is simple to implement and works by recursively processing each non-
terminal according to its grammar rules.
2. The given grammar `S → +SS | SS | a` is successfully parsed with this approach.
3. Backtracking is inherently supported in recursive descent parsers when you check different rules
for matching tokens.
4. Error Handling is achieved by raising a `SyntaxError` when the token does not match the expected
token.

If you need any further explanation or additional examples, feel free to ask! 😊

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