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 n
= xi pi = E (X)
i 1
The mean of a random variables X is also called the expected value of X denoted by E (x).
8. Variance of a Random Variable – let X be a random variable with possible values x1 x2, xn occur with
probabilities are p1, p2 pn respectively.
let = E (X) be the mean of X. The variance of X denoted by var (X) or 2x is defined as
n
2
Var (X) or x = (xi - )2 pi = E (xi – )2 = E (X2) – [E (X)]2
i 1

Standard Deviation, x = Var (X)

9. Probability function – The probability of x success is denoted by p (X = x) or P(x) and is given by P (x) =
nC qn – x px , x = 0, 1, 2, n and q = 1 – P
x
The function P (x) is known as probability function of binomial distribution.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. Partition of a sample space – A set of events E1, E2 , En is said to represent a partition of sample S
if
(i) Ei Fj = if i j , i, j = 1, 2, n
(ii) E1 E2 E3 En = S
(iii) P (Ei) > 0 i = 1,2, n.
2. Theorem of total Probability – let E1, E2, En be a partition of sample spaces and each event has
a non – zero probability If A be any event associated with S, then
P (A) = P (E1) P (A/E1) + P (E2) P (A/E2) + P (E3) P (A/E3) + + P (En) P (A/En)
n
P (A) = P (Ei) P (A/Ei)
i 1

3. A Few Terminologies –
(i) Hypothesis – When Baye’s theorem is applied the events E1, E2, En are said to be hypothesis x.
(ii) Priori Porbability – The Porbabilites P (E1), P (E2) P (En) are called priori.
(iii) Posteriori Porbabililty – The conditional probability P (Ei/A) is known as the posteriori probability
of hypothesis Ei where i = 1, 2, 3, ......, n
4. Probability Distribution of a Random Variable – let real numbers x1, x2, xn be the possible value
of random variable and p1, p2, pn be probability corresponding to each value of the random
variable X. Then the probability distribution is
X: x1 x2 xn
P(X) : p1 p2 pn.
(i) pi > 0 (ii) sum of porbabilites p1 + p2 + + pn = 1.
5. Binomial Distribution – Probability distribution of a number of successes, in an experiment consisting of
n Bernoulli trials are obtanied by Binomial expansioin of (q + p)n. Such a probability distribution is
X: 0 1 2 r n
P(X) : nC qn nC qn – 1 P nC qn – 2 P2 nC qn – r Pr nC Pn
0 1 2 r n
This probability distribution is called binomial distribution with parameter n and p.
Where, p is the probability of success in each trial and q is the probability of not sucess in each trial.
p+q=1,q=1–p

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 Probability
Revision Notes
Class - 11 Maths
Chapter 16 - Probability

Probability is a numerical measure of the uncertainty of diverse phenomena.

It can range from 0 to 1 a positive value.
The phrases 'probably', 'doubt’, ‘most probably', 'chances' and so on, all have
an element of ambiguity in them.
no. of favourable outcome
Probability=
total no. of outcomes
Approaches to Probability:
i. Statistical approach: Observation & data collection
ii. Classical approach: Only Equal probable events
iii. Axiomatic method: For real-life situations. It has a strong connection to set
theory.

Random Experiments:
(i) There are multiple possible outcomes.
(ii) It is impossible to know the outcome ahead of time.

Outcomes: An outcome is a probable result of a random experiment.

Sample space refers to the set of all possible results of a random experiment.
The letter S stands for it. For example, in a coin toss, the sample space is Head,
Tail.
Each element of the sample space is referred to as a sample point. For
example, in a coin flip, the head is a sample point.

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 Event:
An event is a collection of favourable outcomes.
An event is defined as a subset E of a sample space S . For example, suppose you
get an unusual result when you roll a dice.

Occurrence of an event:
The occurrence of an event E in a sample space S is said to have occurred if the
experiment's outcome is such that E . We say that the event E did not
happen if the outcome is such that E.

Types of Event
i. Impossible and Sure Events
ii. Simple Event
iii. Compound Event

Impossible and Sure Events:

Events that are both impossible and certain are described by the empty set
and the sample space S . The impossible event is denoted by , and the entire
sample space is referred to as the Sure Event.
For example, while rolling a dice, an impossible event is when the number is
greater than 6 and a sure event is when the number is less than or equal to 6.

Simple (or elementary) event: A simple event has only one sample point of a
sample space.
There are exactly n simple occurrences in a sample space with n different
items. For example, if you roll a dice, a simple event could be receiving a four.

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 Compound Event: A compound event is one in which there are multiple
sample points.
For example, in the case of rolling a die, a simple event could be the event of
receiving a four.

Algebra of Events:
i. Complementary Event
ii. Event ‘A or B’
iii. Event ‘A and B’
iv. Event ‘A but not B

Complementary Event
Complementary event to A='not A'
Example: If event A= Event of getting odd number in throw of a die, that is
1, 3, 5 Then, Complementary event to A= Event of getting even number in
throw of a die, that is 2, 4, 6

A'= : S and A S A (Where S is the Sample Space)

Event (A or B):
A B is known as the union of two sets A and B , it contains all those elements
which are present in either of the two sets.

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If the sets A and B correspond to two events in a sample space, then ‘A B’ is
the event ‘either A or B or both’. This event ‘A B’ is also called ‘A or B’
Event

Event 'A and B' :

A B is known as the intersection of two sets A and B , it contains all those
elements which are common in both the two sets. i.e., which belong to both
‘A and B’ . If A and B are two events, then the set A A B denotes the event
‘A and B’ .
Thus, A B={ : A and B}

Event 'A but not B'

A–B is the set of all those elements which are in A but not in B . Therefore, the
set A–B may denote the event ‘ A but not B ’.

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A–B=A B'

Mutually exclusive events

Events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one of
them precludes the occurrence of the other, i.e., if they can't happen at the same
time.
A die is thrown, for example. All even outcomes is event A , and all odd outcomes
is event B . Then A and B are mutually exclusive events, and they cannot happen
at the same time.
A sample space's simple events are always mutually exclusive.

Exhaustive events:
Sample space contains lot of events together.
Example: A die is thrown.
Event A= All even outcome and event B= All odd outcome. Even A & B
together forms exhaustive events as it forms Sample Space.

Axiomatic Approach to Probability:

Another way of explaining probability by using axioms are rules is called the
Axiomatic approach.
Let S be sample space of a random experiment. The probability P is a real

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Sequences and Series

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Sets, Relations & Functions

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Simple Inequalities

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Straight Lines

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 C

b
a+ b

A B
a
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.
Further AC = – CA
AB BC CA AB BC CA = 0
when sides of a triangle ABC are taken in order i.e. initial and terminal points coincides. Then
AB BC CA = 0
(ii) Parallelogram law of vector addition – If the two vectors a and b are represented by the two adjacent
sides OA and OB of a parallelogram OACB, then their sum a + b is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal OC of parallelogram through their common point O i.e., OA OB OC
B C

b
b a+

O A
a
5. Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar – Let a be the given vector and be a scalar, then product of and
a a
(i) when is +ve, then a and a are in the same direction.
(ii) when is –ve. then a and a are in the opposite direction. Also a a.
6. Components of Vector – Let us take the points A (1, 0, 0), B (0, 1, 0) and C (0, 0, 1) on the coordinate axes
OX, OY and OZ respectively. Now, | OA | = 1, | OB | = 1 and | OC | = 1, Vectors OA , OB and OC each

having magnitude 1 is known as unit vector. These are denoted by ˆi, ˆj and k̂ .
Z

k C (0, 0, 1)

j
0 Y
B
i (0, 1, 0)
A (1, 0, 0)

X
Consider the vector OP , where P is the point (x, y, z). Now OQ, OR, OS are the projections of OP on
coordinates axes.
O Q = x, O R = y, O S = z OQ xi, ˆ OR yjˆ , OS zkˆ

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 Z

S
Zk
P (x, y, z)
r
yj
R Y

Q xi

X
OP ˆ
xi, ˆ
yj, zkˆ , | OP | x2 y2 z2 |r|

x, y, z are called the scalar components and x ˆi , yjˆ , zkˆ are called the vector components of vector OP .
7. Vector joining two points – Let P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2 z2) be the two points. Then vector joining the
points P1 and P2 is P1P2 . Join P1, P2 with O. Now OP 2 OP1 P1P2 (by triangle law)
Z P2 (x2, y2, z2)
P1(x1, y1, z1)

O Y

X
P1P2 OP 2 OP1
= (x 2 ˆi y 2 ˆj z 2 k)
ˆ (x ˆi y ˆj z k)
1 1 1
ˆ (x 2 x1 ) ˆi (y 2 y1 ) ˆj (z 2 z1 ) kˆ
P1P2 (x 2 x1 )2 (y2 y1 )2 (z 2 z1 )2
8. Section Formula
PR m
(i) A line segment PQ is divided by a point R in the ratio m : n internally i.e.,
RQ n

m : n
P(a) R(r) Q(b)
If a and b are the position vectors of P and Q then the position vector r of R is given by
mb na
r
m n
a b
If R be the mid-point of PQ, then r
2

(ii) when R divides PQ externally, i.e., | a b | nˆ

P( a ) Q (b) R(r)

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 mb na
Then r
m n
9. Projection of vector along a directed line – Let the vector AB makes an angle with directed line .
Projection of AB on = AB cos AC p.
B

A C
P
The vector p is called the projection vector. Its magnitudes is b , which is known as projection of vector
AB . The angle between AB and AC is given by
AB AC AB AC
cos , Now projection AC = | AB | cos
| AB || AC | | AC |
AC p
AB , If AB a, then AC a a pˆ
| AC | |p|

b
Thus, the projection of a on b = a a bˆ
|b|
10. Scalar Product of Two Vectors (Dot Product) – Scalar Product of two vectors a and b is defined as
a b | a | | b | cos
Where is the angle between a and b (0 )

(i) when = 0, then a b a b = ab Also a a a a a.a a2

ˆi ˆi ˆj ˆj kˆ kˆ 1

(ii) when , then a b | a | | b | cos 0

2 2
ˆi ˆj ˆj kˆ kˆ ˆi 0

11. Vector Product of two Vectors (Cross Product) – The vector product of two non-zero vectors a and b ,
denoted by a b is defined as
a b = | a | | b | sin nˆ , where is the angle between a and b , 0 .
Unit vector n̂ is perpendicular to both vectors a and b such that a b and n̂ form a right handed
orthogonal system.
(i) If = 0, then a b = 0, a a 0
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
and i i j j k k 0 ˆ ˆ

(ii) If = / 2 , then a b = | a b | nˆ
ˆi ˆj k,
ˆ ˆj kˆ ˆi, kˆ ˆi ˆj
Also, ˆj ˆi ˆ kˆ ˆj
k, ˆi and iˆ kˆ ˆj

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 CONNECTING CONCEPTS

1. Direction Cosines – Let OX, OY, OZ be the positive coordinate axes, P (x, y, z) by any point in the space.
Let OP makes angles , , with coordinate, axes OX, OY, OZ. The angle , , are known as direction
angles, cosine of these angles i.e.,
Z

C
z z)
P (x, y,
0 Y
x y B
A

X
cos , cos , cos are called direction cosines of line OP. these direction cosines are denoted by , m, n
i.e., = cos , m = cos , n = cos
2. Relation Between, l, m, n and Direction Ratios –
The perpendiculars PA, PB, PC are drawn on coordinate axes OX, OY, OZ reprectively. Let | OP | = r
x y
In OAP, A = 90°, cos = , x = r , In OBP.. B = 90°, cos = m y = mr
r r
z
In OCP, C = 90°, cos = n, z = nr
r
Thus the coordinates of P may b expressed as ( r, mr, nr)
Also, OP2 = x2 + y2 + z2, r2 = (lr)2 + (mr)2 + (nr)2 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1

Set of any there numbers, which are proportional to direction cosines are called direction ratio of the
vactor. Direction ratio are denoted by a, b and c.
The numbers r mr and nr, proportional to the direction cosines, hence, they are also direction ratios of
vector OP .
3. Properties of Vector Addition –
1. For two vectors a, b the sum is commutative i.e., a b b a

2. For three vectors a, b and c , the sum of vectors is associative i.e.,

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

4. Additive Inverse of Vector a – If there exists vector – a such that a + (– a) = a – a = 0 then – a is called
the additure inverse of a
5. Some Properties – Let a a1 iˆ a 2 ˆj a 3 kˆ and b b1 ˆi b 2 ˆj b 3 kˆ

(i) a b (a1 iˆ a 2 ˆj ˆ
a 3 k) ( b1 ˆi b 2 ˆj ˆ
b 3 k) = (a1 + b1) î + (a2 + b2) ĵ + (a3 + b3) k̂
(ii) a b or (a1 ˆi a 2 ˆj a 3 k)
ˆ ( b1 iˆ b 2 ˆj ˆ
b3 k) a1 = b1, a2 = b2, a3 = b3
(iii) a (a1 ˆi a 2 ˆj ˆ = ( a ) iˆ
a 3 k) 1 ( a 2 ) ˆj ( a 3 ) kˆ
(iv) a and b are parallel, if and only if there exists a non zero scalar such that b a

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 i.e., b1 ˆi + b 2 ˆj + b3 kˆ = (a1 ˆi + a 2 ˆj + a 3 k)
ˆ = ( a ) iˆ
1 ( a 2 ) ˆj ( a 3 ) kˆ

b1 b2 b3
b1 = a1, , b2 = a2, b3 = a3
a1 a2 a3

6. Properties of scalar product of two vectors (Dot Product)

a b
(i) cos
|a ||b|
If a a1 iˆ a 2 ˆj a 3 kˆ and b b1 ˆi b2 ˆj b3 kˆ

Then, a b (a1 ˆi a 2 ˆj ˆ (b ˆi
a 3 k) 1 b 2 ˆj ˆ , a b =a b +a b +a b
b3 k) 1 1 2 2 3 3

a b a1b1 a 2 b2 a 3b3
|a| a12 a 22 a 32 , | b | b12 b 22 b 32 cos | a || b | a12 a 22 a 32 b12 b 22 b32
(ii) a b is commutative i.e., a b b a
(iii) If is a scalar, then ( a) b (a b) a ( b)

7. Properties of Vector Product of two Vectors (Cross Product) –

(i) (a) If a = 0 or b = 0, then a × b = 0

(b) If a b, then a b = 0

(ii) a b is not commutative

i.e. a b b a , but a b b a
(iii) If a and b represent adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area | a b|
1
(iv) If a, b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle, then its area = |a b|
2
(v) Distributive property a (b c) a b a c

(a) If be a scalar, then (a b) ( a) b a ( b)

(b) If a a1ˆi a 2 ˆj a 3 k,
ˆ and b b1ˆi b 2 ˆj b 3 kˆ

ˆi ˆj kˆ
Then, a b a1 a 2 a 3
b1 b 2 b3

8 . If 1 1 are the direction angles of the vector a a1iˆ a 2 ˆj a 3 kˆ . Then direction cosines of a are
given as
a1 a2 a
cos = , cos = , cos = 3
a a a

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9. Scalar Product of Two Vectors (Dot Product) – Scalar Product of two vectors a and b is defined as
a b a b cos

where is the angle between a and b 0

2
(i) When = 0, then a b a b . Also a a a a = a2
ˆi ˆi ˆj ˆj kˆ kˆ 1

(ii) When = ,a b a b cos 0

2 2

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