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What is Air Pollution? Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the environment. Air pollution causes deaths and respiratory disease. Air pollution is often identified with major stationary sources, but the greatest source of emissions is mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Case Study: London Smog and Indonesian Fires

The London smog of 1952 and the Indonesian fires of 1997-1998 are on of the serious human-induced air pollution The weather in Greater London had been unusually cold for several weeks leading up to the event. Because of the cold weather, households were burning more coal than usual to keep warm. The smoke from approximately one million coal-fired stoves, in addition to the emissions from local industry, was released into the atmosphere. The Indonesian fires resulted from Slash-and-burn practices. These practices have been part of farming in tropical rain forests for centuries. Fire is the preferred method of land clearing because clearing land with bulldozers is too expensive. Unfortunately, in 1997 a combination of events related to El Nino and the slash-and-burn practice resulted in the worlds greatest environmental disaster.

What are the sources of Air Pollution? There are two major categories of air pollution. The stationary and mobile sources. Stationary sources of air pollution

Are those that have relatively fixed location. These include point sources, fugitive sources and area sources.

Point sources emit pollutants from one or more controllable sites such as smokestacks of power plants (figure 1). Fugitive sources generate air pollutants from open areas exposed to wind processes. Examples include burning for agricultural purposes (figure 2), as well as dirt roads, construction sites, farmlands, storage plies, etc. Area sources are smaller sources of air pollution, well defined areas within which are several sources of air pollutants.

Mobile sources of air pollution

Are pollutants that move from place to place while emitting pollutants. These include automobiles, trucks, buses, aircraft, ships, and trains (figure 3). Figure 1. Point source: Smokestack from power plants Figure 2. Fugitive source: Burning Sugarcane field Figure 3. Mobile source of air pollution General Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution affects many aspects of the environment like, visual qualities, vegetation, animals, soils, water quality, natural and artificial structure and human health.

Visual Qualities

Affects visual resources by discoloring the atmosphere and by reducing visual range and atmospheric clarity that will cause contrast to decrease.

Vegetation

Effects on vegetation include damage to leaf tissue, needles, and fruit; reduction in growth rates or suppression of growth; increased susceptibility to a variety of diseases, pests, and adverse weather; disruption of reproductive processes.

Animals

Effects on vertebrate animals include impairment of the respiratory system; damage to eyes, teeth, and bones; increased susceptibility to disease, parasite and reduce ability for successful reproduction.

Soil and Water Quality

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Air pollutants can also degrade soil and water resources. Soils and water may become toxic from the deposition of various pollutants. Soils may be leached of nutrients by pollutants that form acids.

Structures Effects include discoloration, erosion, and decomposition of building materials.

Human Health Effects on human health depend on the dose or concentration; primary effects of air pollution include toxic poisoning, cancer, birth defects and irritation of the respiratory system.

Primary and Secondary Pollutants, Natural and Human Major air pollutants occur either in gaseous or particulate matter (PM). Particulate matter are particles of solid or liquid substances less than 10 m in diameter and may be organic or inorganic. Gaseous pollutant include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and volatile organic compound (VOC) such as hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfides and hydrogen fluoride.

Air pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary Pollutants are those emitted directly into the air. They include particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.

Secondary Pollutants are produced through reactions between primary pollutants and normal atmospheric compounds. Natural sources of pollution includes the following: o Release of sulfur dioxide from volcanic eruptions.

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o Release of hydrogen sulfide from geysers and hot springs and from biological

decay in bogs and marshes. o Release of ozone in the lower atmosphere as a result of unstable meteorological conditions, such as violent thunderstorms. o Emission of a variety of particles from wildfires and windstorms. o Natural hydrocarbon seeps

Major Air Pollutants: Some Details Sulfur Dioxide

Is a colorless and odorless gas normally present at Earths surface at low concentrations When emitted into atmosphere, it can be converted through complex oxidation reactions into particulate sulfate (SO4) and can be removed from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition. Major anthropogenic source is burning of fossil fuels, mostly coal in power plants. Other major source comprises a variety of industrial processes ranging from petroleum refining to the production of paper, cement, and aluminum. Effects depend on dosage and concentration present and include injury or death to animals and plants, as well as corrosion paints and metals. It is capable of causing severe damage to the lungs of human and other animals, particularly in the sulfate form. It Is also an important precursor to acid rain,

Nitrogen Oxides

Are emitted largely in two forms: nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and only these two are subject to emission regulations. Nitrogen Dioxide is of main concern because it may be converted by complex reactions in the atmosphere to an ion NO32-, within small water particulate can impair visibility.

Both NO and NO2 are major contributor to the development of smog and NO2 is the major contributor of acid rain. The environmental effects of nitrogen oxides include irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and lungs and increase susceptibility to viral infections. Nitrogen oxides may suppress plant growth. When nitrate is deposited on soils, it can promote plant growth through nitrogen fertilization.

Carbon Monoxide

Is a colorless, odorless gas that even at low concentrations is extremely toxic to humans and other animals. High toxicity results from a physiological effect Carbon monoxide is particularly hazardous to people with known heart disease, anemia, or respiratory disease. It may also cause birth defects. Approximately 90% of the carbon monoxide in the atmosphere comes from natural sources, the other 10% come from fires, automobiles, and other sources of incomplete burning of organic compounds

Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants

Photochemical oxidants results from atmospheric interaction of nitrogen dioxide and sunlight. The most common photochemical oxidant is the ozone. Ozone is a colorless gas with a slightly sweet odor. It is also a form of oxygen in which three atoms of oxygen occur together rather than the normal two. Ozone is relatively unstable and releases its third oxygen readily. It is toxic and kills bacteria and other organisms in the water but when released to the air, it may injure living things. Ozone is chemically active and it has a short lifetime in the air. Ozone forms a natural layer high in the atmosphere (stratosphere) from of the effect of the sunlight. The Ozone layer in the atmosphere protects us from harmful UV radiation from the sun. Although ozone is considered a pollutant in the lower atmosphere, it is beneficial to the stratosphere.

Volatile Organic Compounds

VOC include a variety of organic compounds used as solvents in industrial processes such as dry cleaning, degreasing, and graphic arts. Hydrocarbon comprise one group of VOCs, these includes natural gas, butane, and propane. Some of these hydrocarbons react with sunlight to produce photochemical smog. On a global basis, only 15% of hydrocarbon emissions are anthropogenic. The largest source of hydrocarbons is from automobiles.

Particulate Matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5)

Is made up of particles less than 10 m in diameter. Nearly all industrial processes, as well as burning of fossils fuels, release particulates into the atmosphere. Much particulate matter is easily visible as smoke, soot, or dust and other particulate matter is not easily visible. Particulates include materials as airborne asbestos particles and small particles of heavy metals, such as arsenic, copper, lead, and zinc, which are usually emitted from industrial facilities. Particle pollutants less than 2.5 m are of great concern because they can easily be inhaled into the lungs. Among the most significant fine particulate pollutants are sulfates and nitrates. Particulates affect human health, ecosystems, and the biosphere. Particulates are linked to both lung cancer and bronchitis. It is also hazardous to the elderly and to individuals with respiratory problems.

Hydrogen Sulfide

Is highly toxic corrosive gas easily identified by its rotten egg odor. It is produced from natural sources such as geysers, swamps, and bogs and from human sources such as industrial plants that produces petroleum. Potential effect includes functional damage to plants and health problems ranging from toxicity to death for humans and animals.

Hydrogen Fluoride

Is a gaseous pollutant released by some industrial activities such as production of aluminum, coal gasification, and burning of coal in power plants Hydrogen Fluoride is extremely toxic even in low concentrations. HF may cause problems for plants and animals. It is potentially dangerous to grazing animals because some forage plants can become toxic when exposed to HF.

Other Hazardous Gases Includes truck or train accident that releases toxic chemicals in gaseous form into the atmosphere. Another source of gaseous air pollution is sewage treatment plants. These treatment plants facilitate the evaporation of the chemicals such as paint thinner, industrial solvents, chloroforms, and methyl chloride into the atmosphere, where they may be inhaled. Many of the chemicals are toxic and suspected to be carcinogens.

Lead

Lead is an important constituent of automobile batteries and many other industrial products. It can be mixed with gasoline that will protect the engine and will promote more fuel consumption. Lead in gasoline is emitted into the air, and by this process lead had been spread around the world and has reached high levels in soils and waters along the roadway. Lead can be transported through the air as particulates to be taken up by plants through the soil or deposited directly on the leaves and enters terrestrial food chain. When lead is carried by the streams and rivers, it is taken up by aquatic organisms and enters aquatic food chain.

A CLOSER LOOK: ACID RAIN What is Acid Rain? Acid rain is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. The precursors of acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. Causes/ Sources of Acid Rain: (Figure 6)

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air. These substances can rise very high into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more acidic pollutants, known as acid rain. Human activities are the main cause of acid rain. Over the past few decades, humans have released so many different chemicals into the air that they have changed the mix of gases in the atmosphere. Power plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when they burn fossil fuels, such as coal, to produce electricity. In addition, the exhaust from cars, trucks, and buses releases nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air. These pollutants cause acid rain.

Effects of Acid Rain: (Figure 7)

Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to the damage of trees at high elevations and many sensitive forest soils. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures. Prior to falling to the earth, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases and their particulate matter derivativessulfates and nitratescontribute to visibility degradation and harm public health.

Control of Acid Rain: Lake acidification can be rehabilitated by periodic addition of lime Decrease emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxides Increase energy efficiency and conservation measures Utilize pollution abatement technology at power plants to lower emissions of air pollutants Figure6: Formation of Acid Rain Figure 7: Damage to Structure Variability of Air Pollution Pollution problems vary in different regions of the world. It also varies with the time of the year.

Las Vegas: Particulates

Pollution from particulates is a problem in arid regions where little vegetation is present and wind can easily pick up and transport fine dust. It usually occurs in dry months. Brown haze over Las Vegas is mostly due to naturally occurring particles from the desert environment.

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Majority of the haze problem resulted from dust coming from construction sites, dirt roads, and vacant lands. Other causes were from natural windblown dust.

Haze from Afar

Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky. Haze often occurs when dust and smoke particles accumulate in relatively dry air. When weather conditions block the dispersal of smoke and other pollutants they concentrate and form a usually low-hanging shroud that impairs visibility and may become a respiratory health threat.

Figure 8: Las Vegas Haze Urban Air Pollution

Air pollution depends on topography and meteorological conditions. Influences of Meteorology and Topography

Meteorological conditions can determine whether air pollution is a nuisance or a major health problem. The primary adverse effects of air pollution are damage to green plants and aggravation of chronic illnesses in people. In the lower atmosphere, restricted circulation associated with inversion layers may lead to pollution events. Atmospheric Inversion (Figure9) occurs when warmer air is found above cooler air, and it poses a particular problem when there is stagnant air mass. Figure 9: Atmospheric Inversion Potential for Urban Air Pollution Potential for air pollution in urban areas is determined by the following factors: 1. The rate of emission of pollutants per unit area. 2. The downwind distance that a mass of air moves through an urban area. 3. The average speed of the wind. 4. The elevation to which potential pollutants can be thoroughly mixed by naturally moving air in lower atmosphere

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The concentration of pollutants in the air directly proportional to the first factors. That is, as either the emission rate or downwind travel distance increases, so will the concentration of pollutants in the air. At constant rate of emission of pollutants, the air mass will collect more and more pollutants as it moves through the urban area.

Smog

Is a general term first used in 1905 fro mixture of smoke and fog that produced unhealthy urban air pollution. There are two major types of smog: Photochemical Smog sometimes called the L.A. type smog or brown air. Photochemical smog is developed from automobiles. Sulfurous Smog which referred to as London-type smog. It is gray air or industrial smog. Sulfur smog is produced primarily by burning of coal or oil at large power plants. Figure 11

Pollution Control

For both stationary and mobile sources of air pollutants, the most reasonable strategy is to reduce, collect, capture, or retain the pollutants before they enter the atmosphere. Particulates: Particulates emitted from fugitive, point, or area stationary sources are much easier to control.

A variety of settling chambers or collectors are used to control emissions of coarse particulates from power plants and industrial sites (point or area sources). Particulates from fugitive sources must be controlled on-site so that the wind does not blow them into the atmosphere. Methods include protecting open areas, controlling dust, and reducing the effects of wind. Automobiles:

Control of pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons is best achieved through pollution control measures for automobiles.

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Nitrogen oxides from automobile exhausts are controlled by recirculating exhaust gas, diluting the air-to-fuel mixture being burned in the engine. Device used to reduce carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions from automobiles is the exhaust systems catalytic converter. Sulfur Dioxide:

Sulfur dioxide emission can be reduced through abatement measures performed before, during, and after combustion.

Another possibility is cleaning up relatively high-sulfur coal by washing it to remove sulfur. Coal gasification is another option which is used to convert coal that is relatively high in sulfur to a gas in order to remove the sulfur.

Sulfur oxides from stationary sources can be reduced by removing the oxides from gases in the stack before they reach the atmosphere. The most highly developed technology for cleaning of gases in tall stacks is by flue gas desulfurization or scrubbing.

Air Pollution Legislation and Standards Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990

Are comprehensive regulations enacted by US congress that address acid rain, toxic emissions, ozone depletion, and automobile exhaust. The goal was to reduce such emissions by about 50% or about 10 million tons a year.

To provide incentives to utility companies to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide by providing marketable permits that allow companies to buy and sell the right to pollute.

Emissions of toxins into the atmosphere are to be reduced by as much as 90%.

To end production of all chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chlorine chemicals. Ambient Air Quality Standards (figure 12)

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Air quality standards are important because they are tied to emission standards that attempt to control air pollution Tougher Standards for PM 2.5 and Ozone o US environmental agencies set new standards to reduce adverse health effects for children and elderly people Air Quality Index (figure 13)
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Used to describe air pollution on a given day.

Cost of Air Pollution Control

Varies tremendously from one industry to another.

One economic consideration is that as the degree of control of a pollutant increases, a point is reached at which the cost of incremental control is very high in relation to the additional benefits of the increased control. Another approach is to issue vouchers to allow businessman to emit a certain total amount of pollution in a region. Some variables to consider: o With increasing air pollution controls, the capital cost for technology to control air pollution increases.
o As the controls for air pollution increase, the loss from pollution damages

decreases.
o The total cost of air pollution is the cost of pollution control plus the

environmental damages of the pollution. CRITICAL THINKING ISSUE: Where Does Arctic Haze Come From, and How Does It Affect the Environment? What is Arctic Haze? Arctic haze is the phenomenon of a visible reddish-brown haze in the atmosphere at high latitudes in the Arctic due to air pollution. A major distinguishing factor of Arctic haze is the ability of its chemical ingredients to persist in the atmosphere for an extended period of time compared to other pollutants.

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Haze consists mainly of sulfates, carbon soot, organic compounds, and toxic metals, including mercury, lead, and vanadium. Scientists describe this haze as aerosol that is, microscopic particles dispersed in a gas, smoke, or fog. Scientists identified Eastern Europe and Russia as major sources of Arctic air pollution. Figure 14: Arctic Haze