Module 3: Problem Solving Skills Introduction

Logical thinking

What is logical thinking

• Logical thinking is the act of analysing a situation and coming up with a sensible solution.
• Similar to critical thinking, logical thinking requires the use of reasoning skills to study a problem objectively,
which will allow you to make a rational conclusion about how to proceed.
• When you use the facts available to you to address a problem you may be facing at work, for example, you are
using logical reasoning skills.

Why are logical thinking skills important?

• Logical thinking skills are important because they can help you reason through important decisions, solve
problems, generate creative ideas and set goals—all of which are necessary for developing your career.
• Whether you have just entered the workforce or want to advance your career, you will come across challenges on
a daily basis that require logical reasoning skills. The stronger your logical thinking skills are, the more easily
you will be able to come up with solutions and plans that benefit you and your workplace.

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Logical thinking

How to build logical thinking skills

There are many ways to strengthen logical thinking in your daily work. Here are a few methods you might
consider to develop your logical thinking skills:
1. Spend time on creative hobbies.
2. Practice questioning.
3. Socialize with others.
4. Learn a new skill.
5. Try to anticipate the outcome of your decisions.

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WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING
• Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying, and
selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution

• Problem solving is the process of identifying a problem, developing possible solution paths, and taking the
appropriate course of action.

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 Steps in Problem Solving:
In order to effectively manage and run a successful organization, leadership must guide their employees and develop
problem-solving techniques. Finding a suitable solution for issues can be accomplished by following the basic
four-step problem-solving process and methodology outlined below.
Step Characteristics

1. Define the problem ∙ Differentiate fact from opinion

∙ Specify underlying causes
∙ Consult each faction involved for information
∙ State the problem specifically
∙ Identify what standard or expectation is violated
∙ Determine in which process the problem lies
∙ Avoid trying to solve the problem without data
2. Generate alternative ∙ Postpone evaluating alternatives initially
solutions ∙ Include all involved individuals in the generating of alternatives
∙ Specify alternatives consistent with organizational goals
∙ Specify short- and long-term alternatives
∙ Brainstorm on others' ideas
∙ Seek alternatives that may solve the problem Page 5
3. Evaluate and select an ∙ Evaluate alternatives relative to a target standard
alternative ∙ Evaluate all alternatives without bias
∙ Evaluate alternatives relative to established goals
∙ Evaluate both proven and possible outcomes
∙ State the selected alternative explicitly
4. Implement and follow ∙ Plan and implement a pilot test of the chosen alternative
up on the solution ∙ Gather feedback from all affected parties
∙ Seek acceptance or consensus by all those affected
∙ Establish ongoing measures and monitoring
∙ Evaluate long-term results based on final solution

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Define Every Problem

• The first step in solving a problem is understanding what that problem actually is.

• You need to be sure that you're dealing with the real problem – not its symptoms.

• For example, if performance in your department is substandard, you might think that the problem lies with
the individuals submitting work. However, if you look a bit deeper, the real issue might be a general lack of
training, or an unreasonable workload across the team.

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Problem solving in computer science

• Problem solving is the process of identifying a problem, developing an algorithm for the identified
problem and finally implementing the algorithm to develop a computer program.

steps to problem solving in computer science

Step 1: understand the problem.

Step 2: create a step-by-step plan for how you'll solve it.
Step 3: carry out the plan and write the actual code.
Step 4: look back and possibly refactor your solution if it could be better.

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Logical reasoning
• Logical reasoning is a type of problem-solving that involves working through a set of rules that govern a
scenario.
• This set of rules or steps is referred to as an algorithm. Logical reasoning involves testing different sets of
steps - or algorithms - to determine which sequence of rules leads to the correct solution.
• The logical reasoning questions can be verbal or non-verbal:

• In verbal logical reasoning questions, the concepts and problems are expressed in words. The candidates
are required to read and understand the given text or paragraph and according choose the right answer
from the given options.

• In non-verbal logical reasoning questions, the concepts and problems are expressed in the form of
figures, images or diagrams and the candidates are required to understand them before choosing the right
answer out of the given options.

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Logical Reasoning: Verbal Reasoning
• Logical reasoning (verbal reasoning) refers to the ability of a candidate to understand and logically work
through concepts and problems expressed in words.
• It checks the ability to extract and work with the meaning, information, and implications from the bulk of the
text. The logics are expressed verbally, and you have to understand the logic before solving the questions.

Logical Reasoning: Nov-Verbal Reasoning

• Logical reasoning (non-verbal reasoning) refers to the ability of a candidate to understand and logically work
through concepts and problems expressed in the form of images, diagrams, etc.
• It checks the ability to extract and work with the meaning, information, and implications from the given images
or diagrams. Here, the logics are expressed non-verbally, and you have to understand the logic before solving
them.

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Common Errors In Reasoning
The reasoning is the act of thinking about a plan in a logical manner. When you can answer logically, it means you have
a good sense of judgment. The reasoning will help you to come at the right decision whenever there is an argument or
personal bias.

The common errors in reasoning are as under:

1. Conclusion without evidence
Most of us decide a certain thing without the correct evidence. Jumping to a conclusion without concrete evidence is
wrong in most cases. This is the common error of reasoning people do in offices and personal lives as well.

2. Emotional sentences
You cannot include an emotion whenever you are discussing an argument. It is one of the biggest errors people make
while arguing.

3. Selected options
Logical thinking involves many options.

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4. Showing false generosity
In a company, college or any other place, there are people who try to please everyone with their positive words and
sentences. The actual motive of such people is something is to make other people agree with them. This is an error as every
time you cannot make someone agree with only positive words containing no logical reasoning.

5. Wishful thoughts
The human tendency is generally based on one rule which is “What I think is true”. Whenever you are working for a
college assignment or company’s project, you cannot argue stating that what you think is right always. In an argument,
when every member starts to think that he is true, the argument is useless.

6. One cause
Logical reasoning has many causes. But it is a wrong habit which everyone develops is to take one cause only ignoring
others. There are several factors that cause an argument and reasoning and you cannot exclude those in a process.

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7. Irrelevant argument
You must have seen many people who use relevant matters to take the discussion on their side. If you are the
one who does the same, avoid it. Putting the irrelevant matter in the discussion does not seem to be logical. It
does not bring good results.

8. Relating irrelevant events

To win an argument, you should not bring irrelevant events. The cause and effect must be related to each other
if you want to prove right in the argument.

9. Assumption of truth for all

Various students study at a college. There are people of different nature in a company. You cannot say that two
persons like the same thing. What one likes may not be liked by another person. Assuming that this is right for
all is a common error in reasoning.

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Deductive reasoning
What is deductive reasoning?

• Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing a conclusion based on premises that are generally assumed to be true.
Also called "deductive logic," this act uses a logical premise to reach a logical conclusion.
• Deductive reasoning is often referred to as "top-down reasoning." If something is assumed to be true and another thing
relates to the first assumption, then the original truth must also hold true for the second thing.
• For example, if a car’s trunk is large and a bike does not fit into the trunk, then you may assume the bike must also be
large. We know this because we were already provided with the information we assume to be true—the trunk is large.
Based on our deductive reasoning skills, we know if a bike does not fit in an already large trunk, then it must also be
large. So long as the two premises are based on accurate information, the outcome of this type of conclusion is often
true.

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 The deductive reasoning process

Understanding the process of deductive reasoning can help you apply logic to solve challenges in your work.
Deductive thought uses only information assumed to be accurate. It does not include emotions, feelings, or assumptions
without evidence because it’s difficult to determine the accuracy of this information.
The process of deductive reasoning includes the following steps:
Initial assumption. Deductive reasoning begins with an assumption. This assumption is usually a generalized statement
that if something is true, then it must be true in all cases.

Second premise. A second premise is made in relation to the first assumption. If the first statement is true, then the second
related statement must also be true.

Testing. Next, the deductive assumption is tested in a variety of scenarios.

Conclusion. Based on the results of the test, the information is determined to be valid or invalid.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAjkQ1YqLEE

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Hypothetical Reasoning

Hypothetical reasoning or reasoning under assumptions is a key concept of. logic, philosophy of
science and mathematics
Hypothetical reasoning is a problem-solving approach that explores several different alternative solutions in parallel
to determine which approach or series of steps best solves a particular problem.

Steps of Hypothetical Method

1. Formulate the initiating fact and resulting

2. Generate list of hypotheses

3. From hypothesis (prediction)

4. Test and see if it is true or false

5. Construct an argument that is for or against the hypothesis

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Computational Problem solving:

Computational thinking is an approach to solving problems using concepts and ideas from computer
science and expressing solutions to those problems so that they can be run on a computer.

computational thinking: decomposition, pattern recognition, abstraction, and algorithms.

Decomposition invites students to break down complex problems into smaller, simpler problems.
Pattern recognition guides students to make connections between similar problems and experience.
Abstraction guides students think deeply about something
Algorithms guides students step by step method of solving a problem

What are the computational methods?

Commonly applied methods include:
∙ Computer algebra, including symbolic computation in fields such as statistics, equation solving,
algebra, calculus, linear algebra, multilinear algebra, optimization.
∙ Numerical analysis, including Computing derivatives by finite differences.

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Computational thinking

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 Computational Thinking Steps
As we saw above, Computational Thinking is an iterative process composed of three stages:
1.Problem Specification: analyze the problem and state it precisely,
using abstraction, decomposition, and pattern recognition as well as establishing the criteria for
solution
2.Algorithmic Expression: find a computational solution using appropriate data representations
and algorithm design
3.Solution Implementation & Evaluation: implement the solution and conduct systematic testing
before generalizing to other problems

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 seven effective thinking strategies

1. Collect data (Look, listen, learn)

The first step to solving any problem is to determine what you know. With computational thinking, this
means figuring out from which sources you’ll collect data and deciding which data are the most relevant.

2. Analyze data (Ask questions)

When we analyze data points, it’s easier to understand how the information fits into the context of a larger
problem. Using visuals such as charts, as well as statistical methods, is a great way to test a hypothesis. Have
students create charts and graphics to support their ideas and convey information.

3. Find patterns (Understand the problem)

An advantage of having data to work with is being able to identify patterns that occur within it. When you
discover patterns, it becomes easier to make predictions and create rules to solve other problems.

4. Decompose problems (Need to know)

Deconstructing problems into smaller parts is an easier way to digest information—and to classify it
accordingly.

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seven effective thinking strategies

5. Abstract
When faced with a problem, have students think bigger picture. By identifying similarities and removing details,
they’ll be left with a solution that’ll work for a variety of different problems.

6. Build models (Create a prototype)

When brainstorming how to create an effective model, encourage students to test and refine ideas using design
software to predict outcomes.

7. Develop algorithms (Highlight and fix)

Look at problem solving as a road map for performing a task. When students are able to develop solutions with
step-by-step instructions, they’re in turn creating an algorithm to use for future problems.

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Problem solving steps

Here are seven-steps for an effective problem-solving process.

∙ Identify the issues.
∙ Understand everyone's interests.
∙ List the possible solutions (options)
∙ Evaluate the options.
∙ Select an option or options.
∙ Document the agreement(s).
∙ Agree on monitoring, and evaluation.

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Computational complexity

Computational complexity is a computer science concept that focuses on the amount of

computing resources needed for particular kinds of tasks.
Particular focus is given to time and memory requirements
The complexity of a problem is the complexity of the best algorithms that allow solving the
problem.

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Algorithm

An algorithm is a step-by-step method of solving a problem. It is commonly used for data processing,
calculation and other related computer and mathematical operations.
An algorithm is also used to manipulate data in various ways, such as inserting a new data item,
searching for a particular item or sorting an item.

To do this, let’s break this process down into three steps:

1. Identifying potential solutions

2. Selecting the right solution
3. Implementing the solution.

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Identifying potential solutions

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Selecting the right solution

Step 1: eliminate unsuitable options by passing them through a screening process. In this process we
need to identify if the solutions meet all the necessary and sufficient conditions, and if they are feasible
or not.

Step 2: compare remaining solutions to figure out which should be implemented.

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Implementing the solution

If you are at this stage, you have chosen a solution and are ready to implement it as a project.
There are a few steps to this process:
∙ Develop a project plan which helps to validate with your stakeholders the project scope,
objectives, deliverables, risks, and deadlines.
∙ Manage the project, including stakeholders and people involved as well as any political, cultural
and cognitive dimensions which the project may bring with it.

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1. Problem identification
The first stage of any problem solving process is to identify the problem or problems you might want to solve. Effective
problem solving strategies always begin by allowing a group scope to articulate what they believe the problem to be and
then coming to some consensus over which problem they approach first. Problem solving activities used at this stage
often have a focus on creating frank, open discussion so that potential problems can be brought to the surface.

2. Problem analysis
Though this step is not a million miles from problem identification, problem analysis deserves to be considered
separately. It can often be an overlooked part of the process and is instrumental when it comes to developing effective
solutions.
The process of problem analysis means ensuring that the problem you are seeking to solve is the right problem. As
part of this stage, you may look deeper and try to find the root cause of a specific problem at a team or organizational
level.
Remember that problem solving strategies should not only be focused on putting out fires in the short term but
developing long term solutions that deal with the root cause of organizational challenges.
Whatever your approach, analyzing a problem is crucial in being able to select an appropriate solution and the problem
solving skills deployed in this stage are beneficial for the rest of the process and ensuring the solutions you create are fit
for purpose.

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3. Solution generation
Once your group has nailed down the particulars of the problem you wish to solve, you want to encourage a free flow of
ideas connecting to solving that problem. This can take the form of problem solving games that encourage creative
thinking or problem solving activities designed to produce working prototypes of possible solutions.
The key to ensuring the success of this stage of the problem solving process is to encourage quick, creative thinking and
create an open space where all ideas are considered. The best solutions can come from unlikely places and by using
problem solving techniques that celebrate invention, you might come up with solution gold.
4. Solution development
No solution is likely to be perfect right out of the gate. It’s important to discuss and develop the solutions your group has
come up with over the course of following the previous problem solving steps in order to arrive at the best possible
solution. Problem solving games used in this stage involve lots of critical thinking, measuring potential effort and impact,
and looking at possible solutions analytically.
During this stage, you will often ask your team to iterate and improve upon your frontrunning solutions and develop them
further. Remember that problem solving strategies always benefit from a multitude of voices and opinions, and not to let
ego get involved when it comes to choosing which solutions to develop and take further.
Finding the best solution is the goal of all problem solving workshops and here is the place to ensure that your solution is
well thought out, sufficiently robust and fit for purpose.

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5. Decision making
Nearly there! Once your group has reached consensus and selected a solution that applies to the problem at hand you
have some decisions to make. You will want to work on allocating ownership of the project, figure out who will do
what, how the success of the solution will be measured and decide the next course of action.
The decision making stage is a part of the problem solving process that can get missed or taken as for granted. Fail to
properly allocate roles and plan out how a solution will actually be implemented and it less likely to be successful in
solving the problem.
Have clear accountabilities, actions, timeframes, and follow-ups. Make these decisions and set clear next-steps in the
problem solving workshop so that everyone is aligned and you can move forward effectively as a group.
Ensuring that you plan for the roll-out of a solution is one of the most important problem solving steps. Without
adequate planning or oversight, it can prove impossible to measure success or iterate further if the problem was not
solved.

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6. Solution implementation
This is what we were waiting for! All problem solving strategies have the end goal of implementing a solution and solving
a problem in mind.
Remember that in order for any solution to be successful, you need to help your group through all of the previous problem
solving steps thoughtfully. Only then can you ensure that you are solving the right problem but also that you have
developed the correct solution and can then successfully implement and measure the impact of that solution.
Project management and communication skills are key here – your solution may need to adjust when out in the wild or
you might discover new challenges along the way.

7. Solution evaluation
So you and your team developed a great solution to a problem and have a gut feeling its been solved. Work done, right?
Wrong. All problem solving strategies benefit from evaluation, consideration, and feedback. You might find that the
solution does not work for everyone, might create new problems, or is potentially so successful that you will want to roll it
out to larger teams or as part of other initiatives.
None of that is possible without taking the time to evaluate the success of the solution you developed in your problem
solving model and adjust if necessary.

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 computational problem Solving
• Computational thinking is an approach to solving problems using concepts
and ideas from computer science, and expressing solutions to those
problems so that they can be run on a computer.

• a computational problem is a problem that may be solved by

an algorithm.

• computational problem can be viewed as a set of instances or cases

together with a, possibly empty, set of solutions for every instance/case.

• Three pillars of science and engineering:

– Theory

– Experimentation

– Computation (Simulation)

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Interpersonal Problem Solving
• Interpersonal problem solving is defined as a cognitive and behavioural process, in which the difference
between the current situation and the situation desired to be reached in the interpersonal relationships is
perceived and which involves efforts to eliminate the tension caused by this.

• The goal of interpersonal problem solving is to help confront problems in a manner that shows respect for
the relationship and other person.

What are Interpersonal Skills?

•Verbal Communication – what we say and how we say it;
•Non-Verbal Communication – what we communicate without words, for example through body language, or
tone of voice; and.
•Listening Skills – how we interpret both the verbal and non-verbal messages sent by others.

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Steps in Interpersonal Problem Solving
1) Identifying the problem

2)Generating potential solutions

3) Evaluating potential solutions

4) Selecting a solution

5) Implementing the solution

6) Evaluating the effectiveness of the solution

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Identifying the problem

• First identifying the problem is a major step.

• It's important for both people to have an understanding of the problem at hand. It is difficult to solve a
problem if two people don't know what the problem is.
• The first stage of any problem-solving process is to identify the problem or problems you might want
to solve.
• Effective problem-solving strategies always begin by allowing a group scope to articulate what they
believe the problem to be and then coming to some consent over which problem they approach first.
• Problem solving activities used at this stage often have a focus on open discussion so that potential
problems can be brought to the surface.

Characteristics of well-identified problems

Identify the root of the problem.
Communicate or express concerns that BOTH have about the problem

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 Generating potential solutions

Three types of generating a solution:

1) Brainstorming 2)Divergent Thinking 3) Convergent Thinking

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a group process for generating ideas.
First: Brainstorm on your own. Think of solutions to the problem.
Second: Brainstorm with each other to be on the same page. Communicate.,

Divergent Thinking
Generate creative ideas through exploring many possible solutions!
Allows for multiple solutions to be thought about to choose the best possible way to solve the problem.
Divergent thinking requires both parties! Makes it interpersonal!
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Convergent Thinking
Opposite of Divergent!
It is like deductive thinking when one comes up with the most valid and examined solution choice.
Both types of thinking are necessary for problem solving interpersonally!

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Evaluating potential solutions

• Your problem-solving abilities can be assessed in three ways:

by asking for examples of times when you previously solved a problem;
by presenting you with certain hypothetical situations and asking how you would respond to them;
and by seeing how you apply your problem-solving skills to different tests and exercises.

• All problem solving strategies benefit from evaluation, consideration, and feedback.

The evaluation process can be divided into following stages:

•defining the 'ideal' solution
•eliminating unviable solutions, ie those which do not meet the constraints
•evaluating the remaining solutions against the results required
•assessing the risks associated with the 'best' solution and, if acceptable
•making the decision.

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Selecting a solution

• Eliminate unsuitable options by passing them through a screening process.

• In this process we need to identify if the solutions meet all the necessary and sufficient conditions, and if
they are feasible or not.

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 Implementing the solution
• Implementation is the result of all your work in solving a problem and requires careful attention to
detail.

• There are three basic stages involved: planning and preparing to implement the solution. implementing
and monitoring the action.

Implementing your Solution by following steps:

1.Identify the actions required.
2.Schedule the actions.
3.Identify the resources required.
4.Put measures in place to counter adverse consequences.
5.Identify management of the action.
6.Review the plan.

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Evaluating the effectiveness of the solution

Evaluation allows us to consider the solution to a problem, make sure that it meets the original design
criteria, produces the correct solution and is fit for purpose - before programming begins.

There are different methods to measure/assess the effectiveness of any programs.

...
How Can We Measure Effectiveness of Any Programs?
1.Was the intrusion implemented according to the plan?
2.Was timely corrective action taken where necessary?
3.Was planned result achieved?

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Problem Solving activity

•There are four basic steps in problem solving:

•define the problem
•generate possible solutions
•evaluate and select possible solutions
•implement solutions

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Problem Solving Activity

1. City’s design needs

2. Pollution
3. Climate Change
4. Lack of Education
5. Unemployment
6. Creating clean water
7. Equipment Failure

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