DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

MODULE 3
Additional List Operatons
 Inverting a Singly linked list
 Concatenating singly linked list

Inverting a Singly linked list

typedef struct listNode *listPointer;

typedef struct{
char data;
listPointer link;
}listNode;

 Write a C Function to invert a singly Linked List

listPointer invert(listPointer lead){

/*invert the list pointed by the lead*/
listPointer middle,trail;
middle=NULL:
while(lead){
trail=middle;
middle=lead;
lead=lead->link;
middle->link=trail;
}
return middle;
}

 Write a c function to concatenate two singly linked lists

listPointer concatenate(listPointer ptr1, listPointer ptr2){

listPointer temp;
if(!ptr1) return ptr2;
if(!ptr2) return ptr1;
for( temp=ptr1;temp->link;temp=temp->link);
temp->link=ptr2;
}
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 Write a c function to Finding the length of the circular list

int length(listPointer last){
listPointer temp;
int count=0;
if(last){
temp=last;
do{
count++;
temp=temp->link;
}
while(temp!=last);
return count;
}
}

Insertion into a doubly linked list

Insertion into a doubly linked list is fairly easy. Assume there are two nodes, node and newnode,
node may be either a header node or an interior node in a list. The function dinsert performs the
insertion operation in constant time.

void dinsert(nodePointer node, nodePointer newnode)

{/* insert newnode to the right of
node*/
newnode→llink = node;
newnode→rlink = node→rlink;
node→rlink→llink = newnode;
node→rlink = newnode;
}

Program: Insertion into a doubly linked circular list

Deletion from a doubly linked list
Deletion from a doubly linked list is equally easy. The function ddelete deletes the node deleted
from the list pointed to by node.
To accomplish this deletion, we only need to change the link fields of the nodes that precede
(deleted→llink→rlink) and follow (deleted→rlink→llink) the node we want to delete.
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void ddelete(nodePointer node, nodePointer deleted)

{
/* delete from the doubly linked list */
if (node == deleted)
printf("Deletion of header node not permitted.\n");
else {
deleted→llink→rlink = deleted→rlink;
deleted→rlink→llink = deleted→llink;
free(deleted) ;
}
}

Program: Deletion from a doubly linked circular list

SPARSE MATRIX REPRESENTATION

A linked list representation for sparse matrices.

In data representation, each column of a sparse matrix is represented as a circularly linked list with a
header node. A similar representation is used for each row of a sparse matrix.

Each node has a tag field, which is used to distinguish between header nodes and entry nodes.

Header Node:
• Each header node has three fields: down, right, and next as shown in figure (a).
• The down field is used to link into a column list and the right field to link into a row list.
• The next field links the header nodes together.
• The header node for row i is also the header node for column i, and the total number of header
nodes is max {number of rows, number of columns}.

Element node:
• Each element node has five fields in addition in addition to the tag field: row, col, down, right,
value as shown in figure (b).
• The down field is used to link to the next nonzero term in the same column and the right field to
link to the next nonzero term in the same row. Thus, if aij ≠ 0, there is a node with tag field =
entry, value = aij, row = i, and col = j as shown in figure (c).
• We link this node into the circular linked lists for row i and column j. Hence, it is simultaneously
linked into two different lists.
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Consider the sparse matrix, as shown in below figure (2).

Figure (3) shows the linked representation of this matrix. Although we have not shown the value of the
tag fields, we can easily determine these values from the node structure.
For each nonzero term of a, have one entry node that is in exactly one row list and one column list. The
header nodes are marked HO-H3. As the figure shows, we use the right field of the header node list
header to link into the list of header nodes.
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To represent a numRows x numCols matrix with numTerms nonzero terms, then we need max
{numRows, numCols} + numTerms + 1 nodes. While each node may require several words of memory,
the total storage will be less than numRows x numCols when numTerms is sufficiently small.

There are two different types of nodes in representation, so unions are used to create the appropriate
data structure. The C declarations are as follows:

#define MAX-SIZE 50 /*size of largest matrix*/

typedef enum {head, entry} tagfield;
typedef struet matrixNode *matrixPointer;
typedef struet {
int row;
int eol;
int value;
} entryNode;

typedef struet {
matrixPointer down;
matrixPointer right;
tagfield tag;
union {
matrixPointer next;
entryNode entry;
} u;
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} matrixNode;
matrixPointer hdnode[MAX-SIZE];

TREE DEFINITION :
A tree is a finite set of one or more nodes such that
 There is a specially designated node called root.
 The remaining nodes are partitioned into n >= 0 disjoint set T1,…,Tn, where each of
these sets is a tree. T1,…,Tn are called the subtrees of the root.

Every node in the tree is the root of some subtree

TERMINOLOGY
 Node: The item of information plus the branches to other nodes
 Degree of a node: The number of subtrees of a node
 Degree of a tree: The maximum of the degree of the nodes in the tree.
 Terminal nodes (or leaf): nodes that have degree zero or node with no successor
 Nonterminal nodes: nodes that don’t belong to terminal nodes.
 Parent and Children: Suppose N is a node in T with left successor S1 and right successor S2,
then N is called the Parent (or father) of S1 and S2. Here, S1 is called left child (or Son) and
S2 is called right child (or Son) of N.
 Siblings: Children of the same parent are said to be siblings.
 Edge: A line drawn from node N of a T to a successor is called an edge
 Path: A sequence of consecutive edges from node N to a node M is called a path.
 Ancestors of a node: All the nodes along the path from the root to that node.
 The level of a node: defined by letting the root be at level zero. If a node is at level l, then it
children are at level l+1.
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 Height (or depth) of the tree: The maximum level of any node in the tree

A is the root node

B is the parent of E and F
C and D are the sibling of B
E and F are the children of B
K, L, F, G, M, I, J are external nodes, or leaves
A, B, C, D, E, H are internal nodes
The level of E is 3
The height (depth) of the tree is 4
The degree of node B is 2
The degree of the tree is 3
The ancestors of node M is A, D, H
The descendants of node D is H, I, J, M

Representation of Trees
There are several ways to represent a given tree such as:

Figure (A)

1. List Representation
2. Left Child- Right Sibling Representation
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3. Representation as a Degree-Two tree

1. List Representation:

The tree can be represented as a List. The tree of figure (A) could be written as the list.
(A (B (E (K, L), F), C (G), D (H (M), I, J) ) )

 The information in the root node comes first.

 The root node is followed by a list of the subtrees of that node.

Tree node is represented by a memory node that has fields for the data and pointers to the
tree node's children

Since the degree of each tree node may be different, so memory nodes with a varying number of
pointer fields are used.
For a tree of degree k, the node structure can be represented as below figure. Each child field is
used to point to a subtree.

2. Left Child-Right Sibling Representation

The below figure show the node structure used in the left child-right sibling
representation
DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

To convert the tree of Figure (A) into this representation:

1. First note that every node has at most one leftmost child
2. At most one closest right sibling.
Ex:
 In Figure (A), the leftmost child of A is B, and the leftmost child of D is H.
 The closest right sibling of B is C, and the closest right sibling of H is I.
 Choose the nodes based on how the tree is drawn. The left child field of each node
points to its leftmost child (if any), and the right sibling field points to its closest right
sibling (if any).
Figure (D) shows the tree of Figure (A) redrawn using the left child-right sibling representation.

3. Representation as a Degree-Two Tree

To obtain the degree-two tree representation of a tree, simply rotate the right-sibling pointers in a
left child-right sibling tree clockwise by 45 degrees. This gives us the degree-two tree displayed
in Figure (E).

Figure (E): degree-two representation

In the degree-two representation, a node has two children as the left and right children.
DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

BINARY TREES
Definition: A binary tree T is defined as a finite set of nodes such that,
• T is empty or
• T consists of a root and two disjoint binary trees called the left subtree and the right subtree.

Figure: Binary Tree

Different kinds of Binary Tree

1. Skewed Tree : A skewed tree is a tree, skewed to the left or skews to the right. or It is a tree
consisting of only left subtree or only right subtree.
 A tree with only left subtrees is called Left Skewed Binary Tree.
 A tree with only right subtrees is called Right Skewed Binary Tree.
2. Complete Binary Tree : A binary tree T is said to complete if all its levels, except possibly
the last level, have the maximum number node 2i, i ≥ 0 and if all the nodes at the last level
appears as far left as possible.

Figure (a): Skewed binary tree Figure (b): Complete binary tree

3. Full Binary Tree(Strictly Binary Tree) : The full binary tree is also known as a strict
binary tree. The tree can only be considered as the full binary tree if each node must contain
either 0 or 2 children. The full binary tree can also be defined as the tree in which each
node must contain 2 children except the leaf nodes
DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

Figure: Full binary tree of level 4 with sequential node number

4. Extended Binary Trees or 2-trees : An extended binary tree is a transformation of any binary tree
into a complete binary tree. This transformation consists of replacing every null subtree of the original tree
with “special nodes.” The nodes from the original tree are then internal nodes, while the special nodes are
external nodes. For instance, consider the following binary tree.

The following tree is its extended binary tree. The circles represent internal nodes, and square represent
external nodes.Every internal node in the extended tree has exactly two children, and every external node
is a leaf. The result is a complete binary tree.
PROPERTIES OF BINARY TREES
Lemma 1: [Maximum number of nodes]:
1. The maximum number of nodes on level i of a binary tree is 2i-1, i ≥ 1.
2. The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of depth k is 2k -1, k ≥ 1.

Proof:
(1) The proof is by induction on i.
Induction Base: The root is the only node on level i = 1. Hence, the maximum number of nodes on level
i =1 is 2i-1 = 20 = 1.
Induction Hypothesis: Let i be an arbitrary positive integer greater than 1. Assume that the maximum
number of nodes on level i -1is 2i-2
Induction Step: The maximum number of nodes on level i -1 is 2i-2 by the induction hypothesis. Since
each node in a binary tree has a maximum degree of 2, the maximum number of nodes on level i is two
times the maximum number of nodes on level i-1, or 2i-1
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(2) The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of depth k is

k k
∑ (maximum number of nodes on level i) = ∑ 2i-1 = 2k-1
i=0 i=0

Lemma 2: [Relation between number of leaf nodes and degree-2 nodes]:

For any nonempty binary tree, T, if n0 is the number of leaf nodes and n2 the number of nodes of degree 2,
then n0 = n2 + 1.

Proof: Let n1 be the number of nodes of degree one and n the total number of nodes. Since all nodes in T
are at most of degree two, we have
n = n0 + n1+ n2 (1)
Count the number of branches in a binary tree. If B is the number of branches, then n =B + 1.
All branches stem from a node of degree one or two. Thus,
B =n 1+ 2n2.

Hence, we obtain
n = B + 1= n 1+ 2n2 + 1 (2)

Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) and rearranging terms, we get

n0 = n2 +1

Consider the figure:

Here, For Figure (b) n2=4, n0= n2+1= 4+1=5 Therefore, the
total number of leaf node=5
DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

BINARY TREE REPRESENTATION

The storage representation of binary trees can be classified as
1. Array representation
2. Linked representation.

Array representation:
 A tree can be represented using an array, which is called sequential representation.
 The nodes are numbered from 1 to n, and one dimensional array can be used to store the nodes.
 Position 0 of this array is left empty and the node numbered i is mapped to position i of the array.
 Below figure shows the array representation for both the trees of figure (a).

• For complete binary tree the array representation is ideal, as no space is wasted.
• For the skewed tree less than half the array is utilized.
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Linked representation:
The problems in array representation are:
 It is good for complete binary trees, but more memory is wasted for skewed and many other
binary trees.
 The insertion and deletion of nodes from the middle of a tree require the movement of many
nodes to reflect the change in level number of these nodes.

These problems can be easily overcome by linked representation

Each node has three fields,
 LeftChild - which contains the address of left subtree
 RightChild - which contains the address of right subtree.
 Data - which contains the actual information

C Code for node:

typedef struct node *treepointer;
typedef struct {
int data;
treepointer leftChild, rightChild;
}node;

Figure: Node representation

DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

Linked representation of the binary tree

BINARY TREE TRAVERSALS

Visiting each node in a tree exactly once is called tree traversal.The different methods of traversing a
binary tree are:

1. Preorder
2. Inorder
3. Postorder

1. Inorder: Inorder traversal calls for moving down the tree toward the left until you cannot go
further. Then visit the node, move one node to the right and continue. If no move can be done, then
go back one more node. Let ptr is the pointer which contains the location of the node N currently
being scanned. L(N) denotes the leftchild of node N and R(N) is the right child of node N
DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

Recursion function:
The inorder traversal of a binary tree can be recursively defined as
• Traverse the left subtree in inorder.
• Visit the root.
• Traverse the right subtree in inorder.

void inorder(treepointer ptr)

{
if (ptr)
{
inorder (ptr→leftchild);
printf (“%d”,ptr→data);
inorder(ptr→rightchild);
}
}

2. Preorder: Preorder is the procedure of visiting a node, traverse left and continue. When you
cannot continue, move right and begin again or move back until you can move right and resume.

Recursion function:
The Preorder traversal of a binary tree can be recursively defined as
 Visit the root
 Traverse the left subtree in preorder.
 Traverse the right subtree in preorder

void preorder (treepointer ptr)

{
if (ptr)
{
printf (“%d”,ptr→data) ;
preorder (ptr→leftchild);
preorder (ptr→rightchild);
}
}

3. Postorder: Postorder traversal calls for moving down the tree towards the left until you can go no
further. Then move to the right node and then visit the node and continue.
Recursion function: The Postorder traversal of a binary tree can be recursively defined as Traverse the
left subtree in postorder.
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 Traverse the right subtree in postorder.

 Visit the root

void postorder(treepointer ptr)

{
if (ptr)
{
postorder (ptr→leftchild);
postorder(ptr→rightchild);
printf (“%d”,ptr→data);
}
}

Traverse the Binary tree in all the pre-order,post-order and inorder

Construct a Binary using the following preorder and Inorder node representation

Pre-order 1,2,4,8,9,10,11,5,3,6,7
Inorder: 8,4,10,9,11,2,5,1,6,3,7
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Construct a Binary using the following preorder and Inorder node representation

PRE-ORDER: A B D E F C G H L J K
INORDER: DBFEAGCLJHK
In pre order always root node will be at the beginning.so A will be choosen as root node
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Inorder : { 4, 2, 1, 5, 8, 3, 6 }
Postorder : { 4, 2, 8, 5, 6, 3, 1 }
In post order always root node will be at the end.so 1 will be choosen as root node

ADDITIONAL BINARY TREE OPERATIONS

1. Copying a Binary tree : This operations will perform a copying of one binary tree to
another.

C function to copy a binary tree:

treepointer copy(treepointer original)

{
if(original)
{
MALLOC(temp,sizeof(*temp));
temp→leftchild=copy(original→leftchild);
temp→rightchild=copy(original→rightchild);
temp→data=original→data;
return temp;
}
return NULL;

}
DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

2. Testing Equality : This operation will determine the equivalence of two binary tree.
Equivalence binary tree have the same structure and the same information in the
corresponding nodes.
C function for testing equality of a binary tree:

int equal(treepointer first,treepointer second)

{
return((!first && !second) || (first && second &&
(first→data==second→data) &&
equal(first→leftchild,second→leftchild) && equal(first→rightchild,
second→rightchild))
}
This function will return TRUE if two trees are equivalent and FALSE if they are not.

THREADED BINARY TREE

The limitations of binary tree are:
1. In binary tree, there are n+1 null links out of 2n total links.
2. Traversing a tree with binary tree is time consuming. These limitations can be overcome
by threaded binary tree.
In the linked representation of any binary tree, there are more null links than actual pointers. These
null links are replaced by the pointers, called threads, which points to other nodes in the tree.

We can represent a threaded binary tree in three ways.

1. One way Inorder Threading
2. Two way Inorder Threading
3. Two way Inorder Threading with header node

Inorder Traversal of a Binary tree is: D B F E A G C L J H K

DATASTRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS BCS304

Figure 1: One way Inorder Threading

Figure 2: Two way Inorder Threading

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Figure 3: Two way Inorder Threading with header node