Computer Graphics and Animation: Unit 3

Physical Layer
The physical layer is the first and lowest layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications
model. The physical layer's function is to transport data using electrical, mechanical or procedural
interfaces.
OSI is a reference model used to show how applications communicate over a network. The model focuses
on providing a visual design of how each communications layer is built on top of the other, starting with
the physical cabling all the way to the application that's trying to communicate with other devices on a
network. IT networking professionals use the OSI model to conceptualize how data is sent or received over
a network.

The physical layer is the layer closest to the physical connection between devices. This layer covers a
variety of devices and mediums, among them cabling, connectors, receivers, transceivers and repeaters.
The physical layer doesn't deal with the physical medium, but it specifies the properties and physical
connectivity of low-level parameters, like electrical connectors. The physical layer acts as a foundation for
the other layers. It's also useful for understanding the connections between devices, while adding visibility
can aid in some risk mitigation processes.
The physical layer determines how to use electricity to place a stream of raw bits from Layer 2, the data
link layer, onto the pins and across the wires of a twisted-pair cable. From an optical standpoint, the
physical layer converts a stream of zeros and ones onto fiber using light as its physical medium. Lastly, the
physical layer uses a wireless transmitter to convert these bits into radio waves for transport.
Functions of the physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for sending computer bits from one device to another along the network.
Its role is determining how physical connections to the network are set up, as well as how bits are
represented into predictable signals -- as they are transmitted either electrically, optically or by radio
waves.
To do this, the physical layer performs a variety of functions, including the following:
Defining bits: Determines how bits are converted from zeros and ones to a signal.
Data rate: Determines how fast the data flows in bits per second.
Synchronization: Ensures that sending and receiving devices are synchronized.
Transmission mode: Determines the direction of data transmissions and whether those are simplex (one
signal is transmitted in one direction), half-duplex (data goes in both directions but not at the same time)
or full-duplex (data is transmitted in both directions simultaneously).

Interface: Determines how devices are connected to a transmission medium, such as Ethernet or radio
waves.
Configuration: Provides point-to-point configurations and multipoint configurations.
Modulation: Converts data into radio waves.
Switching mechanism: Sends data packets from one port to another.
Signal equalization: Helps create more reliable connections and makes multiplexing easier.
Physical topology: Physical topology refers to how devices are linked. Physical topologies include the
following:
 Mesh topology: Mesh topologies consist of devices, also referred to as nodes, that are linked to every
other node in the network. These networks are set up to efficiently route data between devices and
clients.
 Star topology: Star topologies are a local area network topology where all nodes are directly connected
to a common central computer.
 Bus topology: Bus topologies consist of multiple devices that are connected through one cable called a
backbone cable. Devices connected to a bus topology directly connect and transmit data to one
another.
 Ring topology: Ring topologies are a configuration where every node directly connects to two other
nodes on a network, creating a circle. Data sent to a node transmits from one node to another around
the ring until it reaches its destination.
 Tree topology: Tree topologies are structured in a hierarchical structure where nodes link together like
a tree when drawn out in network diagram form.
 Hybrid topology: Hybrid topologies are a combination of two or more other topologies and are used
depending on factors related to performance, reliability or cost.
Data and Signals in Physical layer
One of the major role of Physical layer is to transfer the data in form of signals through a transmission
medium. It doesn’t matter what data you are sending, it can be text, audio, image, video etc. everything is
transferred in form of signals. This happens because a data cannot be send as it is over a transmission
medium, it must be converted to a form that is acceptable by the transmission media, signals are what a
transmission medium carry.
Analog and Digital
Both the data and the signal can be represented in form of analog and digital.
Analog and Digital Data: Analog data is continuous data that keeps changing over time, for example in an
analog watch, the hour, minute and second hands keep moving so you infer the time by looking at it, it
keeps changing. On the other hand digital watch shows you discrete data such as 12:20 AM, 5:30 PM etc.
at a particular moment of time.
Analog and Digital Signals: Similar to data, a signal can be analog or digital. An analog signal can have
infinite number of values in a given range, on the other hand a digital signal has limited number of values
in a given range. The following digram shows analog and digital signals.

Transmission Impairment in Data Communication

In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to deteriorate
the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as
the signal at the end of the medium. The imperfection causes signal impairment. Below are the causes of
the impairment.
Causes of impairment –
 Attenuation It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which
causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated signal.
Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back and
compensate for this loss.
Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at
two different point.
Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is the power at sending end and P2 is the power at receiving end.
Some where the decibel is also define in terms of voltage instead of power.In this case because power is
proportional to the square of the voltage the formula is
Attenuation(dB) = 20log10(V2/V1)
V1 is the voltage at sending end and V2 is the voltage at receiving end.
 Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in composite
signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed
travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final destination Every
component arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they have different phases at
receiver end from what they had at senders end.
  Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise. There are
several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which
may corrupt the signal.

Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending antenna
and transmission medium act as receiving antenna.
Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.
Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.
Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines
To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ration .The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER
SNRdB = 10Log10SNR
DATA RATE LIMITS: A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data,
in bits per second over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:

1. Nyquist bit rate for a noiseless channel BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log 2 L

2: Shannon Capacity for a noisy channel Capacity = bandwidth * log 2 (1 + SNR)
PERFORMANCE (NETWORK PERFORMANCE) :
Up to now, we have discussed the tools of transmitting data (signals) over a network and how the data
behave. One important issue in networking is the performance of the network-how good is it? We discuss
quality of service, an overall measurement of network performance.
Bandwidth: One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However, the term can
be used in two different contexts with two different measuring values: bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth
in bits per second.
Transmission Media
Transmission Media is a method of establishing a communication medium to transmit and receive
information in the form of electromagnetic signal waves. Since different physical components operate it, it
is put under the physical layer while being worked on by physical elements from the physical layer. A LAN,
or local area network, is the physical setup where a transmitter and receiver communicate utilizing a
Transmission medium. Copper-based or fiber-based transmission media are used to carry either electric or
optical signals. The transmission medium is also known as a communication channel.

Copper-based or fibre-based transmission media are used to carry either electric or optical signals. The
transmission medium is also known as a communication channel.
The transmission media is mainly of two types: Wired Media and Wireless Media through which data is
transmitted. To measure the quality of data that is transmitted, and its characteristics can be calculated by
the characteristics of medium and signal.
In wired media, the characteristics of the medium are more important and on the other hand in wireless
media, the characteristic of the signal are much more vital.
There are several Transmission Media and all of them have different properties which includes bandwidth,
delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance. And depending on these factors Transmission media
is selected for the data transfer.
Media Terminology
Segment length – The signal degrades for each type of media after traveling a certain distance to the point
where it becomes unintelligible. This distance is referred to as the segment length.

Attenuation – The loss of signal strength when traveling a distance is called attenuation. Measured in
decibels (DB).
Bandwidth – Amount of data that can travel through the cable in a unit period of time. Measure in kbps,
Mbps, etc.
Interference – Each cable is susceptible to certain forms of external noise. This is called EMI
(Electromagnetic Interference) or RFI (Radio frequency interference)
Crosstalk – When a signal carrying conductor is placed near another signal carrying conductor. Interference
is generated in the other cable. This is called crosstalk.

Guided or Wired Transmission Media

This type of media uses cables to transmit signals across the network. Wired media, often known as guided
media, is a form of transmission medium. It has a finite range in the communication system and is also
known as a Bounded transmission media. With the use of physical wiring connections, the qualities of the
transmission signals may be concentrated and contained inside a specific, constrained channel.
Transmission speeds are one of the most striking features of this kind of communication.

Twisted Pair Cable

• Description: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.

• Types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).
• Usage: Commonly used in telephone lines and Ethernet networks.
• Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install.
• Disadvantages: Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and limited bandwidth.

Coaxial Cable

• Description: A single copper conductor surrounded by a plastic layer for insulation and a metallic shield.
• Usage: Used for cable television, internet, and early computer networks.
• Advantages: Higher bandwidth and better noise immunity than twisted pair cables.
• Disadvantages: Bulkier and more expensive than twisted pair cables.

Fiber Optic Cable

• Description: Uses light to transmit data through strands of glass or plastic fibers.
• Types: Single-mode and multi-mode fibers.
• Usage: High-speed data communication, long-distance telecommunications, and internet backbones.
Advantages: Extremely high bandwidth, immune to EMI, capable of long-distance data transmission
without significant signal loss.

Disadvantages: Expensive, complex installation and maintenance.

2. Wireless (Unguided) Transmission Media

Unguided media, also termed as unbound transmission medium, is a method of transmitting data without
the need for cables. Physical geography has no bearing on these media. Unguided media are also known as
wireless communication. It is a wireless transmission media channel that does not need a physical medium
to connect to network nodes or servers.

Radio Waves

• Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
• Usage: Wireless LANs, AM/FM radio, cell phones, and television broadcasts.
• Advantages: Wide coverage area, penetrates buildings and obstructions.
• Disadvantages: Susceptible to interference and limited bandwidth compared to wired media.

Microwaves

• Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
• Usage: Satellite communication, wireless networks, and Bluetooth devices.
• Advantages: High bandwidth, suitable for point-to-point communication.
• Disadvantages: Line-of-sight communication required, susceptible to weather conditions.

Infrared

• Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies between visible light and microwaves.
• Usage: Remote controls, short-range communication (e.g., between devices in a single room).
• Advantages: High data rate for short distances, no interference from radio waves.
• Disadvantages: Requires line-of-sight, limited range.

Global Mobile Satellite System

GMSS stands for Global Mobile Satellite System. An artificial body which is placed in an orbit around the
earth for the purpose of communication is known as Communication satellite. GMSS is a system which
consists of various artificial communication satellites orbiting around the earth for the purpose of
communication.
A satellite network is a combination of nodes that provides communication from one point on the Earth to
another. A node in the network can be Satellite, an Earth station, or an End-user terminal or Telephone.
Satellite networks are like cellular networks, they divide the planet into cells.
 The frequencies reserved for the satellite microwave communication are in gigahertz(GHz) range. Each
satellite sends and receives over two different bands. Transmission from earth to satellite is called the
Uplink. Transmission from the satellite to the earth is called the Downlink.

Satellite frequency bands:Uplink and downlink frequencies must be different to avoid interference. Now,
stations at the earth have greater power sources than that of satellite as it has only solar power. Also,
higher frequency results in higher attenuation and to compensate with it more power is required. So,
uplink uses higher frequency to penetrate the environment.

Satellite Orbits:
Orbit: An artificial satellite needs to have an orbit, the path in which it travels around the Earth. The orbit
can be equatorial, inclined or polar.
Footprint: Satellite process microwaves with bidirectional antennas. Therefore, the signal from the satellite
is normally aimed at a specific area called the footprint.
Satellite Categories
Based on the location of the orbit, satellites can be divided into three categories as follows
GEO: GEO stands for Geostationary Earth Orbit.
The communication satellites in this orbit operates at a distance of about 36000 km above the earth’s
surface and their orbital time period is about 24 hours.
Geostationary Orbit Satellites are used for radio broadcasting.
To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at the same speed as the earth, so that it
seems to remain fixed above a certain spot. So such satellites are called geostationary.
One geostationary satellite cannot cover the whole earth. One satellite in orbit has line-of-sight contact
with vast number of stations, but the curvature of the Earth still keeps much of the planet out of sight. It
takes minimum of three satellites equidistant from each other in geostationary Earth Orbit(GEO) to provide
full global transmission.
MEO: MEO stands for Medium Earth Orbit.
The communication satellites in this orbit operates at a distance of about 5000 to 12000 km above the
earth’s surface.
These satellites are positioned between the two Van Allen belts. A satellite at this orbit takes
approximately 6 to 8 hours to circle the Earth.
One Example of a MEO satellite system is Global Positioning System(GPS), constructed and operated by US
Department of Defense, orbiting at an altitude about 18,000 km above the earth.
The system consists of 24 satellites and is used for land, sea, and air navigation to provide time and
locations for vehicle and ships.
The orbits and the locations of the satellites in each orbit are designed in such a way that, at any time, four
satellites are visible from any point on the Earth. A GPS receiver has a almanac that tells the current
position of each satellite.
GPS is based on a principle called Trilateration(also sometimes called Triangulation). Principle states that
“On a plane, if we know our distance from three points, we know exactly where we are.”
LEO: LEO stands for Low Earth Orbit.
The communication satellites in this orbit operates at a distance of about 500 to 1200 km above the earth’s
surface and their orbital time period generally ranges between 95 to 120 minutes. The Satellite has a speed
of 20,000 to 25,000 km/h. Low Orbit Satellites makes global radio coverage possible.
An LEO system is made of a constellation of satellites that work together as a network, each satellite acts
as a switch. Satellites that are close to each other are connected through inter-satellite links (ISLs). A
mobile system communicates with the satellite through a user mobile link(UML). A satellite can also
communicate with an Earth station(gateway) through a gateway link(GWL).
LEO satellites can be divided into three categories: Little LEOs, Big LEOs, and Broad Band LEOs.
Little LEOs operate under 1GHz. They are mostly used for low-data-rate messaging.
Big LEOs operate between 1 and 3GHz. Globalstar and Iridium system are examples of Big LEOs.
Broad Band LEOs provide communication similar to fiber-optic networks. The first broadband LEO system
was Teledesic.
IRIDIUM: The concept of Iridium system, a 77-satellite network, was started by Motorola in 1990. The
project took 8 years to materialize.
Finally in 1998, the service was started by 66 satellites. The original name, Iridium, came from the name of
the 77th chemical element. A more appropriate name is Dysprosium (the name of 66th element).
The System has 66 satellites divided into 6 orbits, with 11 satellites in each orbit. The orbits are at an
altitude of 750km.
Iridium is designed to provide direct worldwide voice and data communication using handheld terminals, a
service similar to cellular telephony but on a global scale.
Globalstar: Globalstar is LEO satellite system that uses 48 satellites in six polar orbits with each orbit
hosting eight satellites. The orbits are located at an altitude of almost 1400km.
The Globalstar system is similar to the Iridium system, the main difference is the relaying mechanism.
Communication between two distinct users in Iridium system requires relaying between several satellites.
Globalstar communication requires both satellites and earth station, which means that ground stations can
create more powerful signals.
Teledesic: Teledesic is a system of satellites that provides fiber-optic like communication.
Its main purpose is to provide broadband Internet access for users all over the world. It is sometimes called
“Internet in the sky”.
The project was started in1990 by Craig McCaw and Bill Gates, later other investors joined the consortium.
Teledesic has 288 satellites in 12 LEO orbits, each at an altitude of 1350km.
The commercial failure of the similar Iridium and Globalstar ventures and other systems, along with
bankruptcy protection fillings, were the primary factors in halting this project, and Teledesic officially
suspended its satellite construction work on 1 October 2002.
Multiplexing: Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth
needs of the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division

multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the
third, for digital signals.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a
link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FOM, signals
generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then
combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are
separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the
channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-
guard bands-to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the
original data frequencies.

FDM Process:

Demultiplexing Process:

Advantages Of FDM:

• FDM is used for analog signals.

• FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
• A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
• It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

• FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

• It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
• A Large number of modulators are required.
• It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:

• FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

• It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they are
multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable.
The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable
for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical
signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The idea is the same: We are combining different signals
of different frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are very high.

Advantages of WDM

• WDM is a quite simple technique.

• The optical link provides greater bandwidth.
• It allows secured transmission of optical signal.
• This technique increases the signal carrying capacity of the system.

Disadvantages of WDM

• The presence of optical component increases the overall cost of the system.
• Proper wavelength spacing must be required otherwise it will lead to signal interference.

Application of WDM

The technique of wavelength division multiplexing is used in SONET network, that includes multiplexing and
demultiplexing of various optical fiber cables.

Time Division Multiplexing

It is a digital technique.
In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different frequency,
but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different
time.

In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed among different
users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to
be transmitted by the sender. A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is
transmitted one-by-one.
In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which each
frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital signals.

When channel A transmits its frame at one end, the De-multiplexer provides media to channel A on the other
end. As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On the other end, the De-
multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media to channel B. Signals from different
channels travel the path in interleaved manner.

Advantages of TDM

• Simple circuit design.

• It uses entire channel bandwidth for the transmission of the signal.
• The problem of Intermodulation distortion is not present in TDM.
• Pulse overlapping can sometimes cause crosstalk but it can be reduced by utilizing guard time. Thus, is
not much serious.

Disadvantages of TDM

• The transmitting and receiving section must be properly synchronized in order to have proper signal
transmission and reception.
• Slow narrowband fading can wipe out all the TDM channels.

Applications of Time division multiplexing

TDM finds its application mainly in a digital communication system, in cellular radio and in satellite
communication system.

Spread Spectrum
In spread spectrum, we combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth.
In wireless applications, stations must be able to share the medium without interception by an
eavesdropper and without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.
To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they spread the original spectrum
needed for each station.
Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two principle:
The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be larger than what is needed. This allows redundancy.
The expanding process occurs after the signal is created by the source. i.e. B to Bss.

• After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading code and spreads the
bandwidth.
• Two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
• Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
• The frequency hopping spread spectrum technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are
modulated by the source signal.
• At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates
another carrier frequency.
• Although the modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the
long run. The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BFHSS >> B.
Direct sequence spread spectrum
■ Spreads the baseband data by directly multiplying the baseband data pulses with a pseudo-noise
sequence produced by a pseudo-noise generator
■ Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal, using spreading code
■ Combine information stream with the spreading code bit stream using an exclusive-OR gate
■ A single pulse or symbol of the PN waveform is called a chip.
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
■ Reduced crosstalk interference
■ Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise.
■ Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading.
■ Inherent security.
■ Longer operating distance.
■ Hard to detect.
■ Harder to jam.
Switching

Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the destination.
When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress.
A communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad level, switching can be
divided into two major categories:

• Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous handshaking is

required and acknowledgements are optional.
• Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need to pre-
establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that circuit. After the
transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be turned down immediately.

1.Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver.

In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will remain
to exist until the connection is terminated.

Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.

In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal
is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the
dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.

Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.Circuits can be permanent or
temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go through three phases:

• Establish a circuit
• Transfer the data
• Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of circuit
switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is established over the
network.

Advantages

• The bandwidth used is fixed.

• The quality of communication is increased as a dedicated communication channel is used.
• The rate at which the data is transmitted is fixed.
• While switching, no time is wasted in waiting.
• It is preferred when communication is long and continuous.

Disadvantages

• Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the capacity
of the path is wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the channel
is free.

2.Message Switching

Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit and routed
through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and
receiver.

The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as the
message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.

Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient routes.

Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type of network
is known as store and forward network.

Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole path is
blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching.

Advantages Of Message Switching

• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of using
available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the data of
unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the messages
until the message is forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message switching
technique.

3.Packet Switching
Packet switching is a connectionless network switching technique. The message splits into smaller pieces
known as packets and packets are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.

Each packet in a packet switching technique has two parts: a header and a payload. Every packet contains
some information in its headers such as source address, destination address and sequence number. The
payload carries the actual data.

Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible. All the packets are reassembled
at the receiving end in correct order. If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message. If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will
be sent.
Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an independent

entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this information to
forward the packet to the correct destination.

The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order. In Datagram Packet Switching technique,
the path is not fixed. Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets. Datagram Packet
Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching. In the case of Virtual circuit
switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are sent.

Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and receiver. In
this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

• In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and receiver.
• When a route is established, data will be transferred.
• After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message has been
received.
• If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.
Advantages Of Packet Switching:

• Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive secondary
storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet Switching
technique provides reliable communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path prior to the
transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes
use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay and
high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high implementation
cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can also
lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.

Telephone Network
Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication. Telephone Network uses Circuit Switching.
Originally, the entire network was referred to as a plain old telephone system (POTS) which uses analog
signals. With the advancement of technology, i.e. in the computer era, there comes a feature to carry data
in addition to voice. Today’s network is both analogous and digital.
Major Components of Telephone Network: There are three major components of the telephone network:
 Local loops
 Trunks
 Switching Offices
There are various levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem offices, and regional offices. The
entire telephone network is as shown in the following figure:
Local Loops: Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to connect a subscriber telephone to the
nearest end office or local central office. For voice purposes, its bandwidth is 4000 Hz. It is very interesting
to examine the telephone number that is associated with each local loop. The office is defined by the first
three digits and the local loop number is defined by the next four digits defines.
Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the communication between offices. Through
multiplexing, trunks can handle hundreds or thousands of connections. Mainly transmission is performed
through optical fibers or satellite links.
Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two subscribers. To avoid this, the
telephone company uses switches that are located in switching offices. A switch is able to connect various
loops or trunks and allows a connection between different subscribes.

Switching offices

Advantages of Telephone Network:

• It is a circuit-switched network.
• There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
• It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.
Disadvantages of Telephone Network:

• It requires a large time for connection.

• It has a low transmission speed.

Applications of Telephone Network:

• It helps to connect people.

• It is used by business organizations to advertise their products.
• It is also used around the world for recreational purposes.
Mobile Network
A mobile network, also known as a cellular network, enables wireless communication between many end
users, and across vast distances, by transmitting signals using radio waves.
Most portable communication devices – including mobile phone handsets, laptops, tablets, and so on – are
equipped to connect to a mobile network and enable wireless communication through phone calls,
electronic messages and mail, and data.
Mobile networks are effectively a web of what’s known as base stations. These base stations each cover a
specific geographical land area – called a cell – and are equipped with at least one fixed-location
transceiver antenna that enables the cell to send and receive transmissions between devices using radio
waves.
When people experience poor reception or connection using their mobile devices, this is usually because
they aren’t in close enough range to a base station. This is also why, in order to provide the best possible
network coverage, many network providers and operators will employ as many base station transceivers as
they can, and overlap their cell areas.
Different types of mobile networks

Mobile networks have become progressively faster and more advanced over the past few decades.
2G: 2G dates back to the early 1990s and eventually enabled early SMS and MMS messaging on mobile
phones. It is also noteworthy because it marked the move from the analog 1G to digital radio signals. Its
use has been phased out in some areas of the world, such as Europe and North America, but 2G is still
available in many developing regions.
3G: 3G was introduced in the early 2000s, and is based on universal mobile telecommunication service
(UMTS) standards. For the first time, mobile devices could use web browsers and stream music and videos.
3G is still widely in use around the world today.
4G: 4G was first introduced around 2010 and offered a significant step forward for mobile networks. Speed
increases significantly with 4G, enabling advanced streaming capabilities and better connectivity and
performance for mobile games and other smartphone apps even when not connected to WiFi.
5G: 5G is the newest addition to the family of mobile networks, rolling out at the end of the 2010s and still
being introduced in major centres around the world today. Through high-frequency radio waves, the 5G
network offers significantly increased bandwidth and is approximately 100 times faster than the upper
limit of 4G.
Cable Network

• Cable networks use physical cables (usually coaxial or fiber-optic) to deliver data.
• These networks provide broadband internet access and television services.
• Data is sent via signals through the cable lines from the provider to the user's modem/router.

An ethernet cable allows the user to connect their devices such as computers, mobile phones, routers, etc,
to a Local Area Network (LAN) that will allow a user to have internet access, and able to communicate with
each other through a wired connection. It also carries broadband signals between devices connected
through it.
Types of Ethernet Cables
Mainly there are three types of ethernet cables used in LANs
1. Coaxial Cables
2. Twisted Pair Cables
3. Fiber optic Cables
1. Coaxial Cables
A coaxial cable is used to carry high-frequency electrical signals with low losses. It uses 10Base2 and
10Base5 Ethernet variants. It has a copper conductor in the middle that is surrounded by a dielectric
insulator generally made of PVC or Teflon. The dielectric insulator is surrounded by a plaited conducting
metallic shield which reduces Electromagnetic Interference of the metal and outside interference and
finally, the metallic shield is covered by a plastic covering called a sheath usually made of PVC or some
other fire-resistant plastic material. Its maximum transmission speed is 10 Mbps. It is usually used in
telephone systems, cable TV, etc.

Types of Coaxial Cables

Hardline Coaxial Cable: It is used in applications where high signal strength is required, this type is most
commonly used. They are used in internet lines and telephone lines.
RG-6 Coaxial Cable: It is used where better signal quality is required; it has a thicker dielectric insulator,
they are used in broadband internet, cable TV, etc.
Tri-Axial Cable: They offer more bandwidth and interference rejection; they use an additional copper braid
shield. Commonly used in connecting cameras and cable TVs. Etc.
Types of Connectors Used in Coaxial Cable
BNC (Bayonet Neil Concelman)

N series Connectors
F Type Connectors
SMA or Subminiature Connector
TNC (Threaded Neil Concelman) etc.
2. Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair is a copper wire cable in which two insulated copper wires are twisted around each other to
reduce interference or crosstalk. It uses 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, and some other newer ethernet variants. It
uses RJ-45 connectors.
Types of Twisted Pair Cable
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: In STP the wires are covered by a copper braid covering or a foil shield,
this foil shield adds a layer that protects it against interference leaking into and out of the cable. Hence,
they are used for longer distances and higher transmission rates.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: Unshielded twisted pair cable is one of the most commonly used
cables in computer networks at present time. UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around
one another, the twisting of wires helps in controlling interference.
3. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cables use optical fibers which are made of glass cores surrounded by several layers of covering
material generally made of PVC or Teflon. It transmits data in the form of light signals due to which there
are no interference issues in fiber optics. Fiber optics can transmit signals over a very long distance as
compared to twisted pairs or coaxial cables. It uses 10BaseF, 100BaseFX, 100BaseBX, 100BaseSX,
1000BaseFx, 1000BaseSX, and 1000BaseBx ethernet variants. Hence, it is capable of carrying information at
a great speed.

Types of Fiber Optics Cable

Single-Mode Fiber: It uses one single ray of light to transmit data. It is used for long-distance transmission.
Multi-Mode Fiber: It uses multiple light rays to transmit data. It is comparatively less expensive.
Types of Connectors Used in Fiber Optics Cable
ST (Straight-Tip) Connector
FC (Fiber Channel) Connector
SC (Subscriber) Connector
LC (Lucent) Connector