2023

1.
a) What is meant by Data Communication ? List the essential elements of network architecture
and explain in brief.
Simplified Version: Communication and Data Transmission
What is Communication?
Communication is the process of sharing information or messages between people or
devices. It allows us to express feelings, share ideas, and connect with others. Today,
with advanced technology, we can communicate easily even if we are far apart. Using
tools like phones, messages, video calls, and images, we can stay connected no matter
the distance.

Definition of Communication
Communication involves sending and receiving data between two people or computers.
One acts as the sender, and the other as the receiver. It is also used to share resources,
not just information.

Components of Data Communication(essential element)

For successful communication, the following components are necessary:
1. Message: The information being shared (e.g., text, audio, images, or videos).
2. Sender: The person or device that sends the message.
3. Receiver: The person or device that receives the message.
4. Medium or Channel: The path used to send the data (e.g., wires or wireless
signals).
5. Protocols: Rules for communication that ensure everything works smoothly.

Communication Protocols
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
o Breaks messages into smaller parts called segments.
o Assigns a sequence number to ensure segments are delivered in the
correct order.
o Used in secure and reliable communication, such as wired networks.
2. Internet Protocol (IP):
o Each device has a unique address called an IP address.
o Helps data packets reach the correct destination.

Types of Communication
1. Simplex Communication:
o Data flows in one direction only.
o Example: A speaker transmitting sound.
2. Half Duplex Communication:
o Data flows in both directions, but only one side can send at a time.
o Example: A walkie-talkie.
 3. Full Duplex Communication:
o Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
o Example: A phone call where both people can talk at the same time.

Channels for Communication

Channels connect the sender and receiver. They can be:
1. Guided Media: Physical connections, like:
o Twisted Pair Cables:
 Unshielded: Basic protection.
 Shielded: Extra protection against interference.
o Coaxial Cable: Inner core carries the signal, shielded by an outer layer.
o Optical Fiber: Uses light to send data through glass or plastic.
2. Unguided Media: Wireless communication, like:
o Microwave: Long-distance signals using towers and antennas.
o Radio Waves: Use antennas for signals.
o Infrared: Short-distance communication using rays (e.g., remote controls).

(b) Explain the following:

(i) Packet switching and Circuit switching

Difference Between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
Parameter Circuit Switching Packet Switching
Dedicated path No dedicated path;
Path established between packets take different
sender and receiver. paths.
Continuous
Data Packets are stored
transmission without
Transmission and forwarded.
storing.
Fixed and reserved in Dynamic, allocated
Bandwidth
advance. as needed.
Required before data
Call Setup Not required.
transfer.
Can occur for each
Congestion Occurs at setup time.
packet.
Bandwidth can be
Wastage of Unused bandwidth is
shared by other
Bandwidth wasted.
packets.
Less reliable,
Reliability Highly reliable. affected by
congestion.
No overhead bits after Overhead bits added
Overhead
setup. to each packet.
Used in telephone
Used in the internet
Applications networks for real-time
for data transmission.
voice transmission.
Installation
Low initial cost. High initial cost.
Cost
Routing Route selected during Each packet is routed
 Parameter Circuit Switching Packet Switching
setup. independently.
Information Analog voice or PCM
Binary data packets.
Type digital voices.
Multiplexing
Circuit multiplexing. Packet multiplexing.
Scheme
Simple delivery Complex delivery
Protocols
protocols. protocols.
Summary
 Circuit Switching is ideal for continuous real-time communication like voice calls.
 Packet Switching is better for efficient and flexible data transfer, like on the internet.

(ii) Simplex, Half duplex and Full duplex

Transmission Modes
Transmission modes determine how data is sent from one device to another. They
are also called communication or directional modes. There are three main types of
transmission modes:

1. Simplex Mode
 Direction: Data flows in one direction only.
 Example: Keyboard to computer (input only) or monitor (output only).
 Use: Rarely used, as most communication requires two-way interaction.
 Advantage: Full bandwidth of the channel is used for sending data.
 Disadvantage: No feedback or response is possible.
 Example Applications: Radio broadcasts, keyboards, monitors.

2. Half-Duplex Mode
 Direction: Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
 Example: Walkie-talkies (speak, then wait for a response).
 Use: Suitable for situations where two-way communication is required but not
simultaneously.
 Advantage: Both devices can send and receive data using full bandwidth in one
direction.
  Disadvantage: Delays in communication because one device must wait for the other to
finish.
 Example Applications: Walkie-talkies, two-way radios.

3. Full-Duplex Mode
 Direction: Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
 Example: Telephone (both users can talk and listen at the same time).
 Use: Ideal for fast and continuous communication.
 Advantage: Efficient, as both devices can transmit and receive data at the same time.
 Disadvantage: If the communication channel isn’t dedicated, its capacity is divided.
 Example Applications: Telephone networks, video calls.

Comparison of Modes
Half-
Parameter Simplex Full-Duplex
Duplex
Both
One
directions, Both directions
Direction direction
one at a simultaneously
only
time
Both, but
Only
not at the Both at the
Send/Receive send or
same same time
receive
time
Better
Performance Lowest than Highest
simplex
Radio,
Walkie-
Example keyboard, Telephone
talkies
monitor

Summary
 Simplex: Basic, one-way communication.
 Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, but turn-based.
 Full-Duplex: Fastest, simultaneous two-way communication.

(c) Want is network topology ? Explain the different network topology. Also explain advantages
and disadvantages of each topology.
What is Network Topology?
Network topology refers to the arrangement or layout of different elements (like nodes, cables,
or devices) in a network. It defines how devices are connected and communicate with each
other.
Types of Topology:
1. Physical Topology: The actual layout of cables and devices.
 2. Logical Topology: The way data flows within the network.

Types of Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology
2.

 All devices are connected to a single backbone cable.

 Data is broadcast to all devices in the network, but only the intended recipient processes
it.
 Common in Ethernet networks.
Advantages:
 Low cost since it uses fewer cables.
 Simple to set up and expand.
 Easy to understand and work with.
Disadvantages:
 If the backbone cable fails, the entire network goes down.
 Troubleshooting is difficult as detecting faults requires specialized tools.
 Signal collisions can occur when multiple devices send data simultaneously.

3. Ring Topology
 4.
 Devices are connected in a circular format where each device is connected to two
others.
 Data flows in one direction (unidirectional) or both directions in some cases.
 Uses token passing for data transmission, ensuring only one device transmits at a time.
Advantages:
 Easy to manage and monitor.
 Cost-effective as it uses simple cabling.
 Reliable because no single host controls the network.
Disadvantages:
 A single device or cable failure can disrupt the entire network.
 Troubleshooting and adding new devices are challenging.

3. Star Topology
 4.

 Each device connects to a central hub, switch, or server.

 The central device manages communication between nodes.
Advantages:
 Easy to troubleshoot issues as they can be traced to the hub.
 Failure of one device doesn’t impact the rest of the network.
 Scalable and supports high data speeds.
Disadvantages:
 If the hub fails, the whole network stops functioning.
 Can be costly due to the need for a central device.

5. Mesh Topology
 6.

 Every device connects to every other device, creating multiple pathways for data.
 Can be full mesh (all devices interconnected) or partial mesh (only some devices
interconnected).
Advantages:
 Highly reliable as failure in one connection doesn’t disrupt communication.
 Fast communication with minimal delays.
 Adding new devices doesn’t impact the network.
Disadvantages:
 Very expensive due to the large amount of cabling and equipment needed.
 Difficult to manage and maintain.

7. Hybrid Topology
 8.

 Combines two or more topologies (e.g., star and bus) to create a customized network
layout.
Advantages:
 Highly flexible and scalable, allowing networks to grow easily.
 Reliable as faults in one topology don’t affect the entire network.
 Designed to maximize strengths and minimize weaknesses of individual topologies.
Disadvantages:
 Complex to design and implement.
 Expensive due to the need for advanced hubs and infrastructure.

Summary Table
Topology Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Single point of failure, signal
Bus Low cost, simple setup Ethernet networks
collisions
Token Ring
Ring Reliable, cost-effective Disruption if one node fails
networks
Easy to troubleshoot,
Star Hub failure stops communication Office LANs
scalable
High cost, bus failure affects the Corporate
Tree Scalable, easy to manage
network networks
Mesh Highly reliable, fast Expensive, complex to maintain Internet (WAN)
Topology Advantages Disadvantages Examples
communication
Large
Hybrid Flexible, scalable, reliable Costly and complex design
organizations

2. (a) Discuss in detail various encoding and modulation techniques.

Encoding and Modulation Techniques in Data Communication
Encoding and modulation are methods used to transmit data over a communication medium like
wires, fiber optics, or wireless channels. Let’s discuss them in simple terms.

1. Encoding Techniques
Encoding is the process of converting digital data into signals that can be transmitted. These
signals can be in digital or analog form.
Types of Encoding Techniques
1. Digital-to-Digital Encoding
Digital data is converted into digital signals. There are three main types:
o Unipolar Encoding:
 Uses only one voltage level (positive or 0).
 Example: 0 is represented as 0 volts, and 1 is represented as a positive
voltage.
 Simple but inefficient because it doesn’t utilize negative voltages.
o Polar Encoding:
 Uses both positive and negative voltages.
 Example: 0 is represented as -5V, and 1 is represented as +5V.
 Examples include NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero), NRZ-L (Level), and NRZ-I
(Inversion).
o Bipolar Encoding:
 Alternates between positive and negative voltages for 1, while 0 is
represented as 0V.
 Reduces signal distortion. Example: AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion).

2. Analog-to-Digital Encoding
Analog signals are converted into digital signals. Common techniques:
o Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):
 Converts analog signals into binary format by sampling, quantizing, and
encoding.
 Used in telecommunication systems.
o Delta Modulation (DM):
 Tracks changes in the analog signal rather than sampling its value.
 Reduces bandwidth usage but less accurate than PCM.
 3. Digital-to-Analog Encoding
Digital data is converted into analog signals. Techniques include:
o Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
 Represents data using changes in signal amplitude.
 Simple but susceptible to noise.
o Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
 Represents data by varying the frequency of the carrier signal.
 Used in low-bandwidth systems like modems.
o Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
 Represents data by shifting the phase of the carrier signal.
 More noise-resistant. Examples include BPSK (Binary PSK) and QPSK
(Quadrature PSK).

4. Analog-to-Analog Encoding
Analog data is converted into analog signals. Techniques include:
o Amplitude Modulation (AM):
 The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied based on the input signal.
 Used in AM radio.
o Frequency Modulation (FM):
 The frequency of the carrier wave is varied based on the input signal.
 Used in FM radio and music broadcasting.
o Phase Modulation (PM):
 The phase of the carrier wave is varied according to the input signal.
 Rarely used on its own.

2. Modulation Techniques
Modulation is the process of converting a message signal into a form suitable for transmission
over a medium. It’s mainly used to transmit data over long distances.
Types of Modulation Techniques
1. Analog Modulation
o Transmitting analog signals over analog communication channels. Examples:
 AM (Amplitude Modulation): Used in radio broadcasting.
 FM (Frequency Modulation): Used for high-quality audio signals.
 PM (Phase Modulation): Modifies the phase of the carrier signal.

2. Digital Modulation
o Transmitting digital data over analog channels. Examples:
 ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying): The amplitude of the signal is varied.
 FSK (Frequency Shift Keying): The frequency of the signal is varied.
 PSK (Phase Shift Keying): The phase of the signal is changed.
 QPSK (Quadrature PSK): Transmits 2 bits per signal change for
higher efficiency.

3. Spread Spectrum Modulation

 o Spreads data across a wide range of frequencies to reduce interference.
Examples:
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Rapidly changes
frequencies.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): Multiplies the data by a
pseudo-random noise sequence.

Comparison of Encoding and Modulation

Feature Encoding Modulation
Purpose Converts data into signals. Prepares signals for transmission.
Signal Type Can be digital or analog. Primarily analog signals.
Example Use Data communication within computers. Wireless communication (radio, TV, etc.).

Conclusion
Both encoding and modulation are crucial in data communication. Encoding helps represent
data in a suitable format, while modulation ensures the data can be transmitted over the
communication medium effectively. Choosing the right technique depends on the type of data
and the transmission medium.

(b) What are the different types of guided and unguided transmission media ? Explain.

Guided and Unguided Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the way data signals are sent through a network from one
system to another.
There are two main types of transmission media:
1. Guided Media (Wired)
2. Unguided Media (Wireless)
Both types are used for both short (like LANs and MANs) and long distances (like WANs).
Guided Transmission Media
Guided transmission media use physical cables or wires to connect the source and destination.
There are three main types of guided media:
1. Twisted Pair Cable
 Usage: Commonly used in telephone lines and Ethernet cables.
 Data Speed: Supports low to high data rates (up to gigabytes).
 Distance: Effective for short distances (a few kilometers/miles).
 Types:
o UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
o STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
2. Co-axial Cable
 Usage: Used in cable TV and internet connections.
 Structure: Has a central copper conductor, a shield, and insulating material.
 Data Speed: Supports medium to high data rates.
 Distance: Effective for medium distances.
3. Fiber Optic Cable
 Usage: Used for high-speed internet, including Fiber-To-The-Home (FTTH) connections.
 Data Speed: Supports very high data rates.
 Distance: Can transmit signals over long distances with minimal interference (since it
uses light signals instead of electrical ones).
 Structure: Made of thin glass or silica strands.
Unguided Transmission Media
Unguided transmission media do not require physical connections. Instead, they use the air to
transmit signals.
There are two main types of unguided media:
1. Microwaves
 Usage: Travel in straight lines, focused in narrow beams.
 Distance: Need repeaters for long distances.
 Example: Bluetooth.
2. Satellite
 Usage: Use microwaves to send signals from space (22,000 miles above Earth).
 Function: Relay microwave signals between ground transmitters.
 Distance: Can cover large areas due to their location in space.
Differences Between Guided and Unguided Media
Guided Media Unguided Media
Requires a physical path for signals. Signals are broadcast through air or water.
Wired communication. Wireless communication.
Provides direction for the signal. No direction, signals move freely.
Types: Twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable. Types: Radio waves, microwaves, infrared.

(c) Explain channel capacity for noisy as well as noiseless channel. We have a 6 kHz channel
whose signal-to-noise ratio is 30 dB. A binary signal is sent by this channel. What is the
maximum achievable data rate?

3. (a) What is multiple access protocol? Explain how collision can be avoided within a
shared medium.(syllabus doubt)
Multiple Access Protocols: ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CA, and CSMA/CD
In computer networking, multiple access protocols help manage how multiple devices
(stations) share a communication channel to send and receive data. Without these
protocols, data transmission could result in collisions where multiple devices send data
at the same time, causing data loss.
Types of Multiple Access Protocols
1. ALOHA
ALOHA is one of the simplest protocols for managing multiple stations. It works by
allowing any station to send data at any time, but if multiple stations send data at the
same time, a collision occurs, and the data is lost. The sender has to wait for a random
time before trying again. There are two types:
 o Pure ALOHA: A station sends data and waits for an acknowledgment. If it
doesn’t get the acknowledgment in time, it assumes the data was lost and
resends it after a random wait.
o Slotted ALOHA: Time is divided into slots. A station can only send data at the
beginning of a time slot, which reduces the chance of collision compared to pure
ALOHA.
2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA allows a station to sense the channel (check if it is busy or idle) before
transmitting data. If the channel is busy, the station waits until it is free. CSMA has three
modes:
o 1-Persistent: The station waits for the channel to be idle and then immediately
sends data.
o Non-Persistent: If the channel is busy, the station waits for a random time
before checking again.
o P-Persistent: The station senses the channel and, with a certain probability (P),
sends data if the channel is idle. If it doesn’t send, it waits for a random time
before trying again.
3. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
CSMA/CD is used to detect and handle collisions. A station first senses the channel, and
if it's idle, it sends data. If a collision occurs, the station detects it, sends a "jam" signal to
stop the transmission, and waits for a random time before retransmitting.
4. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
CSMA/CA is used in wireless networks where collisions are harder to detect. It works by
sensing the channel before transmission. If the channel is idle, it sends data, but before
sending, it also waits for a brief time (Interframe Space or IFS) to avoid collisions. It uses
acknowledgments to confirm successful data transmission.
Channel Access Methods
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
FDMA divides the available bandwidth into separate frequency bands. Each station gets
its frequency band to send data, preventing interference from other stations.
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
TDMA divides the time into slots and allocates a time slot for each station. Stations can
send data during their allocated time slot to avoid collisions.
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
CDMA allows all stations to transmit data simultaneously over the same frequency. Each
station is assigned a unique code, which is used to separate their data from others. It’s
like multiple people speaking different languages in a room, where each can be
understood by others who know their language.
Summary of Differences
 ALOHA: Simple, but inefficient. Collisions are frequent.
 CSMA: Senses the channel before transmission to reduce collisions.
 CSMA/CD: Used for detecting and handling collisions after they occur.
 CSMA/CA: Used in wireless networks to avoid collisions by waiting and acknowledging
data.
  FDMA, TDMA, CDMA: Used in systems with controlled access to a channel based on
frequency, time, or unique codes.
These protocols are essential for ensuring that multiple devices can share a network
without interfering with each other, making data transmission smoother and more
reliable.

b) Explain briefly OSI reference model. Compare it with TCP/IP reference model.

OSI Reference Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to
understand and implement network communications. It divides network communication into
seven distinct layers, each with specific functions. The goal of the OSI model is to standardize
how different systems communicate over a network, regardless of their underlying architecture.
Here are the 7 layers of the OSI model, from the top (user) layer to the bottom (physical) layer:
1. Application Layer: Provides network services to end-user applications (e.g., email, file
transfer).
2. Presentation Layer: Ensures data is in a readable format for the application layer,
handling encryption, compression, and translation between different data formats.
3. Session Layer: Manages sessions (connections) between applications, controlling the
opening, closing, and managing of sessions.
 4. Transport Layer: Responsible for end-to-end communication, flow control, and error
correction (e.g., TCP, UDP).
5. Network Layer: Manages routing and forwarding of data packets between devices (e.g.,
IP, routers).
6. Data Link Layer: Handles data transfer between devices on the same network, error
detection, and correction (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
7. Physical Layer: Defines the physical connection and transmission of raw data bits over
the medium (e.g., cables, switches, signal transmission).

TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is the foundational
architecture for the internet and other networks. It is simpler than the OSI model and has 4
layers, each corresponding to one or more layers in the OSI model.
Here are the 4 layers of the TCP/IP model:
1. Application Layer: Similar to the OSI application, presentation, and session layers, it
handles end-user services and application protocols (e.g., HTTP, FTP, DNS).
2. Transport Layer: Corresponds to the OSI transport layer, responsible for reliable data
transfer between applications (e.g., TCP, UDP).
3. Internet Layer: Corresponds to the OSI network layer, responsible for logical
addressing, routing, and packet forwarding (e.g., IP).
4. Link Layer: Combines the OSI data link and physical layers, responsible for the actual
transmission of data over the physical network (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).

Comparison Between OSI and TCP/IP Models

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model
7 layers (Application, Presentation,
Number of 4 layers (Application, Transport, Internet,
Session, Transport, Network, Data
Layers Link)
Link, Physical)
Layer More detailed with separate layers for More simplified, combining OSI layers
Structure session and presentation into fewer layers
A conceptual framework, often used Practical, based on the actual protocols
Scope
for teaching and standards used in the internet
More specific and defined in each Layers serve broader functions (e.g., the
Layer
layer (e.g., session management in Application Layer in TCP/IP combines
Functions
the Session Layer) many OSI layers)
OSI was developed by ISO TCP/IP was developed by DARPA
Development (International Organization for (Defense Advanced Research Projects
Standardization) Agency) for real-world networking
Provides generic protocols for each Focuses on TCP/IP protocols (e.g., TCP,
Protocols
layer IP, UDP) used in the internet
The OSI model is more theoretical The TCP/IP model is the de facto
Adoption and not widely adopted in real-world standard for the internet and most
networking modern networks
Summary
 OSI Model: A theoretical framework with 7 layers that defines the communication
process in a network, useful for understanding and teaching networking concepts.
 TCP/IP Model: A practical 4-layer model focused on internet protocols, widely used in
real-world network communication.

c) Write about Stop and Wait protocol, Go- Back-N and Sliding window protocol.

Stop and Wait Protocol

The Stop and Wait Protocol is a simple method for sending data between a sender and a
receiver. It is part of error control mechanisms used to ensure that the data received by the
receiver is exactly what the sender sent. The error control mechanisms are mainly divided into
two categories:
 Stop and Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
 Sliding Window Protocol, which is further divided into Go-Back-N and Selective
Repeat
What is Stop and Wait Protocol?
In the Stop and Wait Protocol, the sender sends a data packet to the receiver, then stops and
waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver before sending the next packet. This
protocol is part of the Data Link Layer and is used for transmitting data over a noiseless
channel. It provides flow control, meaning it controls the rate of data transmission between the
sender and the receiver.
Key Points:
 Unidirectional Transmission: Data can only flow in one direction at a time — either the
sender sends data or the receiver sends the acknowledgment.
 Flow Control: Ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver by controlling
the flow of data.
Primitives of Stop and Wait Protocol
Sender Side:
1. Send one packet at a time: The sender sends a data packet, then waits for the
acknowledgment (ACK) of that packet.
2. Wait for acknowledgment: The sender can only send the next packet once it receives
the acknowledgment for the previous packet.
Receiver Side:
1. Receive and consume data: The receiver accepts the data packet and processes it.
2. Send acknowledgment: After processing the packet, the receiver sends an
acknowledgment back to the sender.
How Stop and Wait Protocol Works
1. The sender sends a data packet to the receiver.
2. The sender waits for the acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.
3. Once the sender receives the acknowledgment, it sends the next data packet.
4. This continues until all the data packets are transmitted.
Example:
 Sender sends packet 1, waits for acknowledgment.
 Receiver receives packet 1, processes it, and sends ACK.
 Sender receives ACK and sends packet 2, waits for ACK again.
 The process repeats until all packets are sent.
Disadvantages of Stop and Wait Protocol
1. Lost Data:
2. If a packet is lost
during transmission, the sender waits indefinitely for the acknowledgment that never
comes. As a result, no further packets can be sent.
o Problem: Both the sender and the receiver are stuck waiting forever.
3. Lost Acknowledgment:

4. If the
acknowledgment for a successfully received packet is lost, the sender will wait forever
for that acknowledgment and won’t send the next packet.
o Problem: The sender is stuck waiting for an acknowledgment that was lost.
5. Delayed Data or Acknowledgment:

6. If the
acknowledgment or data is delayed beyond the expected time, the sender may
mistakenly think that the acknowledgment is for a different packet.
o Problem: The sender may think that it has received an acknowledgment for a
different packet, leading to confusion or unnecessary retransmissions.
o Go-Back-N Protocol
o The Go-Back-N (GBN) protocol is a more efficient ARQ protocol that allows the
sender to send multiple frames before needing to wait for acknowledgments, but
it requires retransmission of all frames starting from the one that was lost or
corrupted.
o How it works:
o Sender: Sends multiple frames (up to a maximum window size, N) in a sequence
without waiting for acknowledgments.
o Receiver: Receives the frames and sends back an acknowledgment for the last
successfully received frame.
o If a frame is lost or corrupted, the receiver discards it and does not send any
acknowledgment for that frame. The sender will retransmit the lost or corrupted
frame, along with all subsequent frames.
o Advantages:
o Higher throughput than Stop and Wait because the sender can send multiple
frames before waiting for acknowledgments.
o Suitable for networks with lower error rates.
o Disadvantages:
o Inefficient in terms of retransmission, as all frames after a lost or corrupted frame
need to be resent, even if some frames were received correctly.
o

o Sliding Window Protocol

o The Sliding Window Protocol is a more advanced ARQ protocol that allows the
sender to send multiple frames, like Go-Back-N, but it handles the
acknowledgment and retransmission process in a more flexible way. It is often
used in high-speed networks.
o How it works:
o Sender: Has a window of frames that it can send without waiting for an
acknowledgment. The window size determines how many frames the sender can
transmit without waiting for ACKs. As the sender receives acknowledgments, the
window "slides" forward, allowing the sender to transmit more frames.
o Receiver: Acknowledges the frames in sequence. The receiver sends an
acknowledgment for the frames it successfully receives and indicates the next
expected frame.
o Flow Control: The sliding window also provides flow control, ensuring that the
sender does not overwhelm the receiver by sending too many frames at once.
o There are two types of sliding window protocols:
o Go-Back-N Sliding Window: A variant of the Go-Back-N protocol where the
receiver can only accept frames in sequence, and any lost or corrupted frame
requires a retransmission of all frames after it.
o Selective Repeat Sliding Window: A more efficient variant where only the lost
or corrupted frame is retransmitted, not the entire window of frames.
o Advantages:
o Efficient use of the network, allowing multiple frames to be in transit at once.
o Selective Repeat reduces the number of retransmissions compared to Go-Back-
N.
o Disadvantages:
o More complex than Stop and Wait or Go-Back-N due to the need for maintaining
window size and managing sequence numbers and acknowledgments.
o

o Comparison of Stop and Wait, Go-Back-N, and Sliding Window Protocols:

o Stop o Go-
o Sliding
o Feature and Back-
Window
Wait N
o 1
o N
(one
(multi
o Window fram o N (multiple
ple
Size e at frames)
frame
a
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4.(a) Discuss the services and functions of Network layer and list various internet working
devices and explain their functions.
Network Layer: Functions, Advantages, and Disadvantages
The Network Layer is an essential part of the OSI model and helps in transferring data packets
between devices in a network. It operates at the third layer of the OSI model, sitting above the
Data Link Layer and below the Transport Layer.
Key Functions of the Network Layer:
1. Routing: The network layer determines the best path or route for data to travel from the
source to the destination.
2. Logical Addressing: The network layer assigns logical IP addresses to data packets,
helping in identifying the source and destination of data.
3. Internetworking: This is the process of connecting different networks to allow
communication between them.
4. Fragmentation: When data packets are too large to be transmitted, they are broken
down into smaller packets that can be sent through the network.
Services Offered by the Network Layer:
1. Guaranteed Delivery: Ensures data reaches its destination.
 2. Guaranteed Delivery with Bound Delay: Ensures data reaches the destination within a
specific time.
3. In-Order Packet Delivery: Ensures packets are received in the correct order.
4. Security Services: Provides encryption and authentication to secure data.
Advantages of the Network Layer:
1. Efficient Data Transmission: It helps in packetizing data, making it easier to send data
in smaller chunks.
2. Reduces Traffic: Routers in the network layer help in reducing congestion and
controlling traffic flow.
3. Routing and Forwarding: It decides the best route for data and ensures the packet
reaches the right destination.
Disadvantages of the Network Layer:
1. No Flow Control: The network layer does not manage the rate of data transmission.
2. Congestion Issues: Too many data packets in the network can cause congestion and
lead to packet loss.
3. Lack of Error Control: There is no direct error control mechanism in the network layer,
making it less reliable for error correction.
Common Network Layer Protocols:
1. IP (Internet Protocol): Defines how data is addressed and routed across networks.
2. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses, allowing
communication within local networks.
3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for error reporting and diagnostics
(e.g., ping).
4. IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): Manages group memberships for
multicast communication.
5. NAT (Network Address Translation): Allows multiple devices to share a single public
IP address.
6. IPsec (Internet Protocol Security): Secures data by encrypting packets.
Issues in Network Layer Design:
 Routing Packets: Choosing the best route is challenging, especially with static and
dynamic routing tables.
 Network Congestion: Too many data packets can clog up the network, affecting
performance.
 Different Addressing Schemes: Different networks may use different addressing
formats, requiring special protocols for communication.

(b) What do you understand with IP addressing? Explain IPV4 in detail. What is the main
advantage of using IPv6 over IPv4?
What is IP Addressing?
IP addressing refers to the system used to assign unique numerical labels (IP addresses) to
devices on a network. These addresses help identify devices (such as computers, smartphones,
routers) so they can communicate with each other over a network, like the internet. An IP
address works much like a home address—it's how data knows where to go.
What is IPv4?
IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4. It is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol,
which defines how devices on a network identify and communicate with each other. IPv4 uses a
32-bit address, which is written in four groups of numbers (each between 0 and 255), separated
by periods.
For example:
192.168.1.1
Each of the four groups of numbers is called an "octet" because it represents 8 bits. With IPv4,
you have a total of 4.3 billion unique IP addresses, but this number is not enough due to the
large number of devices being connected to the internet.
Structure of an IPv4 Address:
 An IPv4 address is 32 bits long, and is divided into four octets.
 Each octet can represent a number from 0 to 255 (since it’s an 8-bit number).
 The format looks like: xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx.
Example: 192.168.0.1 is an IPv4 address.
Classes of IPv4:
IPv4 addresses are also classified into different types or "classes", such as:
 Class A: Large networks (1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255).
 Class B: Medium-sized networks (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255).
 Class C: Smaller networks (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255).
What is IPv6?
IPv6 stands for Internet Protocol version 6. It is the next generation of the Internet Protocol,
designed to solve the problem of limited IP addresses in IPv4. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address,
providing a much larger address space.
For example, an IPv6 address looks like this:
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
Main Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4:
1. Larger Address Space:
IPv6 provides 340 undecillion unique IP addresses (a huge number), compared to
IPv4's 4.3 billion. This ensures that the internet can support many more devices and
services in the future.
2. No Need for NAT (Network Address Translation):
IPv6 eliminates the need for NAT, which is used in IPv4 to deal with limited addresses.
Each device can get its own unique IP address.
3. Improved Security:
IPv6 has built-in security features, like IPsec, which provide better encryption and
authentication for secure communications.
4. Simplified Header Format:
IPv6 has a simpler header format, making packet processing more efficient and faster.
5. Better Mobility:
IPv6 is designed to work better with mobile devices, allowing easier device-to-device
communication and improved network transitions.
In summary, IPv6 offers a much larger address space, better security, and improved
performance over IPv4, making it the future-proof solution for the growing number of internet-
connected devices.
(c) With the help of suitable example briefly explain :

(i) Congestion Control

(iii) Routers
(i) Congestion Control
Congestion control is a technique used in networks to prevent too much data from
being sent at once, which could overload the network and cause delays or packet
loss. Think of it like managing traffic on a busy road. If too many cars (data packets)
try to use the road (network) at the same time, traffic (network congestion) will slow
down.
Example:
Imagine you're trying to send data from your computer to a website. If there are too
many users trying to access the same website at the same time, the data may not
flow smoothly. Congestion control helps by slowing down the sending rate, so the
data can be sent in a way that doesn't overload the network. It's like having traffic
lights on the road to control the flow of cars and avoid traffic jams.
Common methods for congestion control:
1. TCP Congestion Control: When too many packets are lost or delayed, the sending rate
is reduced to prevent further congestion.
2. Window Size Adjustment: The sender adjusts the amount of data it sends at once
based on feedback from the receiver.
(ii) Routers
A router is a device that directs data packets between different networks. Think of it
like a traffic cop at an intersection, directing vehicles (data packets) to the right road
(network) to reach their destination.
Example:
When you send a message from your computer to a friend, it doesn’t travel directly to
them. It goes through various devices and routers along the way. The router checks
the destination address of the data packet and determines the best path for it to
reach the correct network or device. If you're browsing a website, routers are
responsible for forwarding your requests to the web server and then bringing the
response back to you.
In simple terms:
 Router's job: Directing data traffic between networks, making sure data gets to the right
place.

5. (a) What is Domain Name system ? Brif

explain flat name space and hierarch name space with diagram. Explain need of DNS in the IP
networks?

What is DNS?
DNS (Domain Name System) is like the "phonebook" of the internet. It helps translate domain
names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.168.1.1) that computers use to
communicate with each other.
How Does DNS Work?
 When you type a website name (like www.google.com) into your browser, the DNS
system helps find the IP address of that website.
 DNS is a client/server system, where your computer (client) asks the DNS server for an
IP address, and the server responds with the correct one.
Why is DNS Needed?
Without DNS, you'd need to remember a series of numbers (IP addresses) to visit websites,
instead of using easy-to-remember names like www.google.com. DNS makes the internet
more user-friendly by handling the mapping from domain names to IP addresses automatically.
Components of DNS
1. Generic Domains: These are top-level domains like:
o .com for commercial websites
o .edu for educational institutions
o .org for nonprofit organizations
2. Country Domains: These use two-letter country codes, like:
o .us for the United States
o .in for India
3. Inverse Domain: This is used when you want to map an IP address to a domain name
(reverse lookup), often used for security or verification purposes.
Types of DNS Lookups
1. Forward Lookup: When a client (like a web browser) asks for the IP address of a
domain name.
2. Reverse Lookup: When a client provides an IP address and asks for the domain name
associated with it.
How DNS Works (Step-by-Step)
1. DNS Request: When you type www.example.com in your browser, your computer
sends a request to a DNS server asking for the corresponding IP address.
2. DNS Response: If the DNS server knows the IP address for www.example.com, it
sends it back. If not, it forwards the request to another DNS server until the correct
address is found.
3. Connection: Once the IP address is found, your browser can connect to the website
and load it.
DNS Structure
DNS uses a tree-like structure for domain names:
 Root: The starting point of the DNS structure.
 Top-Level Domains (TLDs): Like .com, .org, .edu.
 Second-Level Domains: Like example in example.com.
 Subdomains: Like www in www.example.com.
(b) Explain Anycast and Multicast Routir Explain Distance Vector Routing with t help of suitable
example.
Network Layer Routing
Routing is the process by which data finds the best path to reach its destination across a
network. Routers, which are special network devices, perform routing by selecting a path to
forward data based on certain factors like hop count, bandwidth, delay, and more. These paths
can either be statically configured or dynamically learned.
Types of Routing:
1. Unicast Routing:

2.
o Unicast refers to sending data from one device to another specific device. This is
the most common type of routing, where the destination device is known, and the
router just looks up its routing table to forward the data to the next hop.
o Example: If you send a request to a website, it is unicast because you are
requesting data from one specific server.
3. Broadcast Routing:

4.
o Broadcast involves sending data to all devices in a network. However, routers
don't forward broadcast data by default because it is meant for all devices.
 o There are two ways broadcast routing can work:
 Unicast Simulation: Routers send separate copies of the broadcast
packet to each device. This is inefficient as it consumes a lot of
bandwidth.
 Flooding: Routers send the broadcast packet to all interfaces at once,
which can cause duplicate packets and waste resources. Reverse Path
Forwarding (RPF) is used to eliminate duplicate packets.
5. Multicast Routing:

6.
oMulticast sends data to only those devices that have shown interest in receiving
it. This is more efficient than broadcast because not all devices receive the data.
o Routers use a spanning tree protocol to avoid loops and ensure data reaches
only the interested devices.
7. Anycast Routing:
 8.
o Anycast sends data to the "nearest" device that shares the same IP address.
The nearest device is determined based on the network's topology. This routing
method is often used with services like DNS.
o Example: A website can have multiple servers, and anycast will direct the user to
the closest server based on their location.
Routing Protocols:
1. Unicast Routing Protocols:
2.
o Distance Vector Protocols: These protocols make routing decisions based on
the number of hops. A route with fewer hops is preferred. Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) is an example.
o Link State Protocols: These protocols consider the state of all links in the
network and build a graph to determine the best path. Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) is an example.
3. Multicast Routing Protocols:
o Multicast routing protocols use trees (spanning trees) instead of graphs to avoid
loops. The most common protocols include:
 Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP)
 Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) with:
 Dense Mode (PIM-DM): Used in environments with many devices.
 Sparse Mode (PIM-SM): Used in environments with fewer
devices, like WANs.

(c) Write short notes on the following:

(1) SMTP
(ii) FTP

(iv) HTTP
Here are short and simple explanations of the protocols:
1) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
 Purpose: SMTP is used for sending emails between computers on a network. It helps in
transferring emails from the sender's email server to the recipient's email server.
 How it works: When you send an email, SMTP is responsible for routing and forwarding
the message to the right destination email server.
 Example: When you click "send" in your email client (like Gmail or Outlook), SMTP
takes care of sending that email to the recipient.
2) FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
 Purpose: FTP is used for transferring files between a client (your computer) and a
server over a network (like the internet).
 How it works: With FTP, you can upload (send) or download (receive) files from a
remote server. It requires a username and password for access in most cases.
 Example: When you upload photos to a website or download software from a server,
you are using FTP.
3) HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
 Purpose: HTTP is used to transfer web pages and other resources (like images, videos)
on the internet. It's the protocol that allows your browser to request web pages from a
server.
 How it works: When you enter a website address (like www.example.com), HTTP
sends a request to the server where the website is hosted, and the server sends back
the webpage to your browser.
 Example: When you open a website, your browser uses HTTP to fetch and display the
page.
These protocols are essential for communication and data transfer on the internet.

2022

1. (a) What are the various network criteria?

Explain various goals and applications of computer networks.

Network Criteria
A network is a group of connected devices (like computers, printers, or scanners) that can
communicate with each other. The devices connected in the network are called nodes, and the
connection can be either wired or wireless.
For a network to meet the needs of all the connected devices, it must fulfill three important
criteria:
1. Performance
2. Reliability
 3. Security

1) Performance
Performance measures how well a network can support communication between devices. Key
factors affecting performance include:
 Transit time: How long it takes for a message to travel from one device to another.
 Response time: The time it takes for a device to process and respond to a request.
 Throughput: The amount of data transferred successfully between devices in a given
time.
 Bandwidth: The maximum data transfer capacity of the network.
 Delay/Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from one point to another in the
network.
 Important Point: A network with high throughput and low latency is ideal. But
throughput and latency are related: increasing one can increase the other.

2) Reliability
Reliability measures how consistently a network performs and how well it recovers from failures.
A reliable network should:
 Have minimal downtime.
 Be able to recover quickly from any disruptions.
 Remain operational even during catastrophic events.

3) Security
Security ensures that the network is protected from unauthorized access, data breaches, and
attacks. A secure network:
 Protects data during transmission.
 Has systems to prevent and respond to attacks, such as hacking or viruses.

Application of Computer Networks

Computer networks are used in many areas of life and business. Here are some key
applications:
1. Internet & World Wide Web: Allows access to websites, online services, and
information.
2. Communication: Enables email, instant messaging, and video calls for easy
communication.
3. File Sharing: Allows sharing of files between devices and locations.
4. Online Gaming: Multiplayer games use networks to connect players worldwide.
5. Remote Access: Allows users to access and control systems from a distance.
6. Social Media: Networks enable the sharing of posts and updates on platforms like
Facebook, Twitter, etc.
7. Cloud Computing: Provides on-demand access to computing resources and services.
8. Online Banking & E-Commerce: Secure networks are used for financial transactions
and online shopping.
 9. Enterprise Networks: Businesses use networks to store and share resources like files
and printers.
10. Healthcare: Networks are used to store and share patient records and enable remote
monitoring.
11. Education: Schools and universities use networks for online courses and virtual
classrooms.
12. Transportation & Logistics: Helps manage shipments and coordinate logistics.
13. IoT & Smart Homes: Networks are used to connect devices like thermostats, cameras,
and appliances.
14. Scientific Research: Enables data sharing and collaboration for research projects.
15. Government & Defense: Secure networks are essential for communication and data
sharing in government and military.

Types of Computer Networks

There are different types of computer networks based on their size and purpose:
1. LAN (Local Area Network): Small networks, like those in homes or offices.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network): Large networks that connect multiple LANs over long
distances.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Networks that cover a city or large campus.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network): Very small networks connecting personal devices.
5. CAN (Campus Area Network): Networks that connect multiple LANs within a campus
or business area.
6. Cloud Networks: Networks that provide access to cloud services hosted in data
centers.
7. IoT Networks: Networks connecting smart devices and sensors.

Limitations of Computer Networks

While computer networks are essential, they come with limitations, such as:
1. Security Issues: Vulnerabilities like malware and data breaches.
2. Complexity: Setting up and managing large networks can be complicated.
3. Cost: Building and maintaining a network can be expensive.
4. Reliability Issues: Downtime and disruptions can occur due to hardware or software
failures.
5. Performance Bottlenecks: High network traffic can slow down performance.
6. Compatibility: Different devices and systems may not always work well together.
7. Limited Bandwidth: Crowded networks can slow down data transfer speeds.
8. Privacy Concerns: Sensitive information may be intercepted during transmission.
9. Management & Maintenance: Continuous monitoring and updates are required.
10. Scalability Challenges: Growing a network can be difficult and requires careful
planning.
11. Legacy Systems: Older systems may not be compatible with new network technologies.
12. Wireless Network Range: Wireless signals can be weak or blocked by obstacles.
Despite these limitations, computer networks are crucial for communication, data sharing, and
connecting people and devices worldwide.
(b) How many categories of network present in computer networks? define the name of the
topologies us these networks.
In computer networks, there are generally five categories based on their geographic coverage
and scale. These categories define the scope of the network, from small personal setups to
large-scale global connections. The five main types are:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
 Definition: A LAN is a network that is typically confined to a small geographical area like
a home, office, or building. It is used to connect devices within a limited area to share
resources such as files, printers, or internet access.
 Topologies used in LAN:
o Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single central cable.
o Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central device (e.g., a switch or
hub).
o Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular manner, where data travels
in one direction.
o Mesh Topology: Devices are interconnected, with multiple paths between them.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Definition: A WAN connects multiple LANs over a larger geographical area, such as
cities, countries, or even continents. The most well-known example of a WAN is the
Internet.
 Topologies used in WAN:
o Mesh Topology: WANs often use mesh topology for redundancy and fault
tolerance.
o Hybrid Topology: A combination of different topologies like bus, star, or mesh.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Definition: A MAN is a network that covers a city or large campus, typically used to
connect several LANs in a metropolitan area. It is larger than a LAN but smaller than a
WAN.
 Topologies used in MAN:
o Ring Topology: Often used for MANs to ensure high-speed data transfer around
the city.
o Star Topology: Connecting multiple LANs through a central device in a city.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Definition: A PAN is the smallest type of network and is typically used to connect
personal devices, such as smartphones, laptops, and tablets, within a very limited range
(a few meters).
 Topologies used in PAN:
o Star Topology: Devices like Bluetooth-enabled devices often use star topology.
o Point-to-Point Topology: Devices directly communicate with one another, like a
laptop and a wireless mouse.
5. Campus Area Network (CAN)
  Definition: A CAN is a network that covers a specific campus, like a university or a
business park. It connects multiple buildings and provides high-speed data transfer
between them.
 Topologies used in CAN:
o Star Topology: Commonly used for centralized management of devices and
connections.
o Hybrid Topology: Combining star or bus topologies for flexibility.

Summary of Network Categories and Their Topologies:

Network Category Common Topologies
LAN (Local Area Network) Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh
WAN (Wide Area Network) Mesh, Hybrid
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) Ring, Star
PAN (Personal Area Network) Star, Point-to-Point
CAN (Campus Area Network) Star, Hybrid

(c) Explain different modes of communic in computer networks with pro diagram.
Transmission Modes

The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another is known as the transmission
mode. It's also called communication mode. The transmission mode defines the direction of
data flow between devices and can be categorized into three types:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half-Duplex Mode
3. Full-Duplex Mode
Let's break each one down simply:
1. Simplex Mode

2.
  Definition: In Simplex mode, data flows in only one direction. One device sends data,
while the other only receives it. There is no feedback from the receiver to the sender.
 Example:
o Radio stations: They send signals to listeners but don't receive anything from
them.
o Keyboard and Monitor: The keyboard sends data to the computer, and the
monitor just displays information; it cannot send anything back to the keyboard.
 Advantages:
o The communication channel is fully utilized since only one direction of data
transfer is needed.
 Disadvantages:
o The communication is one-way and doesn't allow two-way interaction.
Diagram:
Sender → Receiver

3. Half-Duplex Mode

4.
 Definition: In Half-Duplex mode, data can flow in both directions, but not at the same
time. One device sends data, and the other receives. After a pause, the roles reverse.
 Example:
o Walkie-talkies: One person speaks while the other listens, and then they switch.
 Advantages:
o Both devices can send and receive data, though not simultaneously.
o The entire bandwidth is used in one direction at a time.
 Disadvantages:
o One device must wait while the other is sending, causing a delay.
Diagram:
Sender ↔ Receiver (Not at the same time)

4. Full-Duplex Mode

5.
 Definition: In Full-Duplex mode, data flows in both directions simultaneously. Both
devices can send and receive data at the same time.
 Example:
o Telephone networks: Both people can talk and listen at the same time.
 Advantages:
o Both devices can send and receive data simultaneously, improving efficiency.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires two channels for data flow, so if there's no dedicated path, the
bandwidth is shared.
Diagram:
Sender ↔ Receiver (Simultaneously)

Comparison of Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Modes

Direction of
Mode Send/Receive Performance Examples
Communication
Low performance, as only Radio,
One-way One device sends, and
Simplex one-way communication Keyboard,
(unidirectional) the other only receives.
is possible. Monitor
Both devices can send Better performance than
Half- Two-way, but not at
and receive, but only Simplex, but not as Walkie-talkie
Duplex the same time
one at a time. efficient as Full-Duplex.
Both devices send and Best performance, as
Full- Two-way, Telephone
receive at the same both channels are utilized
Duplex simultaneously Network
time. simultaneously.

2.

(a) What do you mean by transmis impairment ? Explain all the cause impairments in detail.
Transmission Impairments in Computer Networks
When data is transmitted from one device to another, sometimes the received signal may not be
the same as the transmitted signal. These differences in the signal are called transmission
impairments. Transmission impairments can affect both analog and digital signals.
In analog signals, the result is a change in the amplitude or shape of the signal. In digital
signals, the bits (0s and 1s) may get altered during transmission.
Causes of Transmission Impairments
There are three main causes of transmission impairments:
1. Noise
2. Distortion
3. Attenuation
Let’s look at each one in simple terms:

1. Noise
2.

 What is it? Noise is any unwanted signal that gets mixed with the original signal. This
makes the received signal different from the sent signal.
 How does it affect? It makes it hard for the receiver to correctly interpret the transmitted
data.
 Examples of Noise:
o Shot noise
o Thermal noise
o Impulse noise
 Diagram:
 Transmitted Signal → Unwanted Noise Added → Distorted Received Signal

3. Distortion
4.

 What is it? Distortion happens when different parts of a signal travel at different speeds.
For example, when a signal has multiple frequencies, each frequency might get delayed
differently, causing the signal to get "out of shape."
 How does it affect? When the signal reaches the receiver, it may look different from
what was sent because the different frequency components don’t arrive at the same
time.
 Cause of Distortion: Environmental factors, distance, or other delays in the
transmission process.
 Diagram:
 Original Composite Signal → Delays in Frequency Components → Distorted Signal

4. Attenuation

5.
 6.
 What is it? Attenuation refers to the loss of signal strength as it travels through a
medium (like cables or air).
 How does it affect? As the signal loses strength, it becomes harder for the receiver to
correctly detect and decode the information.
 Cause of Attenuation: Environmental resistance, distance, or obstacles between the
sender and receiver.
 Diagram:
 Strong Signal → Travels → Weak Signal at Receiver End (Attenuation)

(b) Calculate the theoretical highest bit rate a regular telephone line. A telephone normally has a
bandwidth of 3000 assigned for data communications. signal-to-noise ratio is usually 15.

(c) Why do we need encoding ? Draw signals using Manchester and differen Manchester for the
string 1010011 W proper example.

Differences Between Manchester and Differential Manchester Encoding

Here’s a simple comparison of Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding:
Basis of
Manchester Encoding Differential Manchester Encoding
Difference
Transition Transitions occur at the Transitions occur in the middle of each bit
Position beginning or end of each bit. period.
Bit A 0 is represented by a high-to- A 1 is represented by a transition at the
Basis of
Manchester Encoding Differential Manchester Encoding
Difference
low transition, and a 1 is beginning of the bit period, and a 0 is
Representation represented by a low-to-high represented by no transition at the
transition. beginning of the bit period.
Needs an external clock signal Self-clocked. Synchronization is achieved
Clock Recovery
for synchronization. by the transitions at each bit boundary.
More resistant to errors because bit
More prone to errors due to
Error Resistance values are determined by transitions in the
noise and interference.
middle.
Bandwidth Uses the same bandwidth as Requires twice the bandwidth because
Requirement the original signal. of the transitions at every bit boundary.
Used in standardized tag Used in Local Area Networks (LANs),
Application filtering, smart cards, and basic
Ethernet, and high-speed communication
communication systems. systems.
Why Do We Need Encoding?
Encoding is used in digital communication to convert data into a signal that can be transmitted
over a medium, such as cables or airwaves. The primary reasons for encoding are:
1. Signal Integrity: To ensure the transmitted data is correctly interpreted at the receiver
end.
2. Synchronization: Encoding provides a way to synchronize the receiver and transmitter
clocks, especially when the signal doesn't have a constant voltage level.
3. Error Detection and Correction: Certain encoding schemes help detect and correct
errors that may occur during transmission due to noise or interference.
4. Efficiency: Encoding schemes optimize the use of available bandwidth and help ensure
that the signal maintains its integrity over long distances.
Manchester and Differential Manchester Encoding for the String "1010011"
Let’s represent the binary string 1010011 using Manchester Encoding and Differential
Manchester Encoding.

1. Manchester Encoding
In Manchester Encoding, the rule is:
 1 is represented by a low-to-high transition.
 0 is represented by a high-to-low transition.
Now let’s encode 1010011:
 1 → low-to-high transition
 0 → high-to-low transition
 1 → low-to-high transition
 0 → high-to-low transition
 0 → high-to-low transition
 1 → low-to-high transition
 1 → low-to-high transition
So, for 1010011, the Manchester Encoding will look like this:
Bit: 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Signal: ↑↓ ↓↑ ↑↓ ↓↑ ↓↑ ↑↓ ↑↓

2. Differential Manchester Encoding

In Differential Manchester Encoding, the rule is:
 A 1 is represented by no transition at the beginning of the bit period and a transition
in the middle.
 A 0 is represented by a transition at the beginning of the bit period and a transition in
the middle.
Now let’s encode 1010011:
 1 → no transition at the start, but a transition in the middle
 0 → transition at the start and in the middle
 1 → no transition at the start, but a transition in the middle
 0 → transition at the start and in the middle
 0 → transition at the start and in the middle
 1 → no transition at the start, but a transition in the middle
 1 → no transition at the start, but a transition in the middle
So, for 1010011, the Differential Manchester Encoding will look like this:
Bit: 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Signal: ↑ ↑↓ ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑

3.

(a) What is the significance of Switching Explain the various switching techniqu with a neat and
clean diagram.
Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are used to route data from the sender to the receiver in networks,
especially large networks. These techniques help determine the best route for data
transmission.
Types of Switching Techniques
1. Circuit Switching

In Circuit Switching, a dedicated communication path is established between the sender and
receiver before any data is transmitted. This path remains reserved until the communication is
finished.
 How it works:
o The sender sends a request for the connection.
o The receiver acknowledges it.
o Once the path is established, data is transferred over this fixed path.
 Used for: Public telephone networks for voice communication.
 Phases:
1. Circuit Establishment: Path is set up.
2. Data Transfer: Data is sent.
3. Circuit Disconnect: The connection is terminated.
 Advantages:
o Dedicated channel.
o Fixed bandwidth for each connection.
 Disadvantages:
o Time-consuming to set up.
o Wastes resources when the channel is idle.
o Expensive for each connection.
Types of Circuit Switching:
 Space Division Switching: Uses physically separate crosspoints.
o Crossbar Switch: A switch with multiple input and output lines that are
connected via crosspoints.
o Multistage Switch: Splits a crossbar into smaller units to reduce cost.
2. Message Switching

In Message Switching, the entire message is sent as a single unit and stored at intermediate
nodes before being forwarded. There is no dedicated path between sender and receiver.
 How it works:
o Messages are routed through intermediate nodes based on the destination
address attached to the message.
o Each node stores the message temporarily and forwards it to the next node.
 Advantages:
o Efficient use of bandwidth.
o No dedicated path is needed.
o Supports variable message sizes.
 Disadvantages:
o High storage requirements for nodes.
o Delays due to storing and forwarding.

3. Packet Switching

In Packet Switching, data is split into smaller packets, which are sent independently through
the network. Each packet has a header with information like the source address and destination
address.
 How it works:
o Data is broken into packets, which are sent over different paths and reassembled
at the receiving end.
 Types:
 1. Datagram Packet Switching:
 Each packet is treated as an independent entity.
 The path is not fixed, so packets can take different routes.
 Connectionless Switching.
2. Virtual Circuit Packet Switching:

 A pre-established path is used for the entire communication.

 Connection-oriented Switching.
 Advantages:
o Cost-effective: No need for massive storage at each node.
o Reliable: Packets can be rerouted if a node is busy.
o Efficient: Multiple users can share the same communication channel.
 Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for applications needing low delay and high-quality service.
o Complex protocols and higher implementation costs.
o Requires retransmission of lost packets if errors occur.

Summary of Switching Types

Feature Circuit Switching Message Switching Packet Switching
Dedicated path for the Data is split into packets and
Path No dedicated path
connection sent independently
Bandwidth Fixed Shared among devices Shared among multiple users
High during Long due to storing and Variable, depends on network
Delay
connection setup forwarding conditions
High due to dedicated Moderate, as no dedicated Low, but complex protocols are
Cost
paths path is required needed
Low (wastes Moderate (messages High (uses bandwidth
Efficiency
resources if idle) stored and forwarded) efficiently)
This breakdown should help you understand the differences between the switching techniques
and their advantages and disadvantages. Let me know if you need more details!

(b) Explain the functions of each layer of the OSI model. Compare OSI model with TCP/IP
protocol suite.(see in PYQ)

(c) What is frame relay ? Explain the architecture of frame relay in detail.

How Frame Relay Works

Frame Relay is a network protocol used at the data link layer to connect Local Area Networks
(LANs) and transmit data across Wide Area Networks (WANs). It allows multiple LANs to
communicate by sharing a physical link instead of requiring dedicated links between each pair
of LANs.
Working of Frame Relay
1. Virtual Circuits: Frame Relay sets up virtual circuits to connect multiple LANs across a
WAN. These are logical paths, not physical ones, used for data transmission.
2. Data Transmission: Data is divided into small packets called frames. Each packet has
a DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier), which tells the Frame Relay switch the
destination of the packet.
3. Switching: The Frame Relay switch looks at the DLCI to identify the destination and
forwards the packet to the next switch or LAN.
4. Congestion Control: Frame Relay uses methods like FECN (Forward Explicit
Congestion Notification) and BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification) to
notify about congestion. It also uses DE (Discard Eligibility) to prioritize which packets
should be dropped during congestion.
Types of Frame Relay Circuits
 Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC): A long-term, always-available connection.
  Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC): A temporary connection established for the duration of
the communication.
Advantages of Frame Relay
 High speed and scalable.
 Reduces network congestion.
 Cost-efficient and offers secured connections.
Disadvantages of Frame Relay
 No error control mechanism.
 Delays in packet transfer.
 Less reliable compared to some other protocols.

4.(a) What do you mean by logical addressing? Explain the header format of IPv4 and discuss
the relevance of various fields.
What is Logical Addressing?
Logical addressing refers to assigning unique identifiers (IP addresses) to devices in a
network to allow them to communicate. Unlike physical addresses (MAC addresses), which are
hardware-based, logical addresses are used to identify devices in a network and are routable
across different networks.
IPv4 Header Format
The IPv4 header is a fixed-size structure (20 to 60 bytes) that holds important information for
routing and delivering the packet. Here’s a simple breakdown of the fields in the IPv4 header:
1. Version (4 bits): Specifies the version of IP (IPv4 = 4).
2. IHL (Internet Header Length, 4 bits): Indicates the length of the header.
3. Type of Service (ToS, 8 bits): Specifies the priority and quality of service for the packet.
4. Total Length (16 bits): Defines the entire size of the packet, including the header and
data.
5. Identification (16 bits): Used to uniquely identify each packet for fragmentation and
reassembly.
6. Flags (3 bits): Controls fragmentation (whether the packet can be fragmented).
7. Fragment Offset (13 bits): Specifies the position of the fragment in the original packet.
8. Time to Live (TTL, 8 bits): Prevents packets from circulating forever by limiting the
number of hops.
9. Protocol (8 bits): Specifies the transport protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP).
10. Header Checksum (16 bits): Used for error-checking the header.
11. Source IP Address (32 bits): The sender’s IP address.
12. Destination IP Address (32 bits): The receiver’s IP address.
13. Options (variable length): Optional extra information (used rarely).
14. Padding (variable length): Used to make the header a multiple of 32 bits.
Relevance of Each Field
 Version: Ensures compatibility between different IP versions (IPv4 or IPv6).
 IHL: Helps in determining where the data starts after the header.
 ToS: Allows routers to prioritize packets based on their service requirements.
 Total Length: Helps in knowing the size of the whole packet.
  Identification, Flags, Fragment Offset: Essential for packet fragmentation and
reassembly.
 TTL: Prevents endless looping of packets in the network.
 Protocol: Identifies the transport layer protocol (TCP, UDP) for proper delivery.
 Checksum: Ensures data integrity in the header.
 Source & Destination IP: Directs the packet to the correct source and destination
devices.

(b) What will be default subnet mask, host address, network address, broadcast IP, for the
following IP address?

(i) 192.168.10.2

(ii) 10.10.10.10

(iii) 130.10.30.40
To determine the default subnet mask, host address, network address, and broadcast IP for the
given IP addresses, we need to consider their class and apply the respective subnet mask.
(i) IP: 192.168.10.2
 Class: This IP is in Class C (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255).
 Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 Network Address: The network address is obtained by performing a logical AND
operation between the IP address and the subnet mask.
o Network Address: 192.168.10.0
 Broadcast Address: The broadcast address is obtained by setting all host bits to 1.
o Broadcast Address: 192.168.10.255
 Host Address: The host address refers to the part of the IP that identifies the specific
device within the network.
o Host Address: 0.0.0.2 (since the host bits of the IP are 2)

(ii) IP: 10.10.10.10

 Class: This IP is in Class A (10.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255).
 Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
 Network Address: The network address is obtained by performing a logical AND
operation between the IP address and the subnet mask.
o Network Address: 10.0.0.0
 Broadcast Address: The broadcast address is obtained by setting all host bits to 1.
o Broadcast Address: 10.255.255.255
 Host Address: The host address is obtained by considering the host part of the IP.
 o Host Address: 0.10.10.10 (The host part of the IP is 10.10.10.10)

(iii) IP: 130.10.30.40

 Class: This IP is in Class B (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255).
 Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
 Network Address: The network address is obtained by performing a logical AND
operation between the IP address and the subnet mask.
o Network Address: 130.10.0.0
 Broadcast Address: The broadcast address is obtained by setting all host bits to 1.
o Broadcast Address: 130.10.255.255
 Host Address: The host address is obtained by considering the host part of the IP.
o Host Address: 0.0.30.40 (since the host part of the IP is 30.40)

(c) What do you mean by routing in networking ? Explain the characteristics and types of routing
algorithms.
outing is the process of selecting the best path for data to travel across a network from the
source to the destination. It involves the use of routing algorithms, routing tables, and routers to
determine the most efficient way for packets to move between devices on different networks.
Characteristics of Routing:
1. Path Selection: Routing determines the most optimal path for data transmission.
2. Scalability: It should efficiently handle increasing network size and complexity.
3. Dynamic or Static: Routing can be dynamic, adjusting paths based on network
changes, or static, where paths are predefined.
4. Efficiency: The algorithm should ensure minimal delays and efficient use of resources.
5. Fault Tolerance: A good routing algorithm adapts to network failures by rerouting traffic
if necessary.
Or
What is Routing in Networking?
Routing in networking is the process of finding the best path for data (packets) to travel from the
source (sender) to the destination (receiver) across a network. It helps ensure that data reaches
the correct place efficiently.
Characteristics of Routing Algorithms
1. Efficiency: The algorithm finds the fastest and least-cost path.
2. Scalability: The algorithm can work well in both small and large networks.
3. Adaptability: The algorithm can adjust to network changes like traffic or node failures.
4. Robustness: It should work even in case of some network failures.
Types of Routing Algorithms
1. Adaptive Routing (Dynamic):
o Makes routing decisions based on current network conditions like traffic and
topology.
o It updates routes in real-time.
o Examples: Centralized, Distributed, and Isolation algorithms.
2. Non-Adaptive Routing (Static):
 o Uses fixed routing tables that do not change based on network conditions.
o Simple but may not adjust well to network changes.
o Examples: Flooding and Random Walks.

5.

(a) Explain the responsibilities of transpor layer in detail. Also, discuss the use TCP and UDP
protocols.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is the 4th layer in the OSI model. Its main job is to provide communication
services directly to the application processes on different devices or hosts. Even though these
devices are not physically connected, the transport layer allows them to send messages to each
other.
The transport layer protocols, like TCP and UDP, are used by applications to communicate over
the network. These protocols work at the end systems (devices), not in the network routers.
Services Provided by the Transport Layer
The transport layer offers several key services to applications, which can be categorized as:
1. End-to-End Delivery: Ensures messages are delivered from the sender to the receiver
across the network.
2. Addressing: Identifies and locates application processes on different hosts.
3. Reliable Delivery: Ensures data is transferred correctly and without errors.
4. Flow Control: Manages the speed of data transmission to prevent network congestion.
5. Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to use the same network connection by
differentiating between data streams.
In short, the transport layer ensures reliable communication between applications on different
devices across a network.

(b) Explain the domain name system and working with an suitable example.

(c) Explain the following:

(i) www

(ii) SMTP

(iii) FTP

(iv) HTTP
(i) WWW (World Wide Web)
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of websites that can be accessed over the internet
using browsers. It allows people to view and interact with text, images, videos, and other
content on websites.
(ii) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

SMTP is a protocol used to send emails over the internet. When you send an email, SMTP
helps route the message from your email client to the recipient's email server.
(iii) FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP is a protocol used to transfer files between computers over the internet. It allows you to
upload or download files from one system to another.

(iv) HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20230521175108/
ImageOfHTTPRequestResponse-1024x580-660.webp

HTTP is a protocol used to transfer data (like text, images, videos) between a web server and a
web browser. It is used every time you visit a website.