Assignment

University of Sargodha
Name:
Eman Zahra
Roll no:
ENGL51F22R007
Class:
Bs 5 Regular
Subject:
Stylistics
Topic:
Discourse: Cohesion , Texuality and
Clause Relations
Submitted to:
Mam Sana Nawaz
Introduction:
• Cohesion and coherence are terms used in discourse analysis and
text linguistics to describe the properties of written texts.

• Coherence and cohesion are essential for aiding readability and

idea communication.

“ Coherence is about the unity of the ideas

and
Cohesion is the unity of structural elements.”

Cohesion:
Cohesion refers to the use of linking words or
phrases (like conjunctions, pronouns, or transitional phrases) that
connect sentences and ideas within a text. It helps make the writing
flow smoothly from one point to the next.

Example :
Bad Example (no cohesion):

“I went to the store. I saw a

friend. We talked for a while. Then, I bought some groceries.”

( The sentences are separate and don’t flow smoothly.)

Good Example (with cohesion):

 “I went to the store and
saw a friend. We talked for a while before I bought some groceries.”

(The conjunction “and” connects the first two ideas, and “before”
links the third idea to the previous one, creating a smooth flow.)

Coherence:
Coherence is a Latin word, meaning “to stick
together.” In a composition, coherence is a literary technique that
refers to the ways a text makes sense to readers and writer through
the relevance and accessibility of its ideas and theories.

Example :
Bad Example (not coherent):

“I went to the park. My

friend called me. The weather was nice. We played basketball.”

(The ideas seem disconnected and there is no clear order or

connection between them.)

Good Example (coherent):

“The weather was nice, so I

decided to go to the park. While I was there, my friend called, and
we played basketball together.”

(The ideas are logically connected: the weather leads to going to

the park, which leads to playing basketball with a friend.)

Halliday & Hasan’s Taxonomy of Cohesive Devices:

Halliday & Hasan identified general categories of
cohesive devices that signal coherence in texts.

1. Reference

2. Ellipsis

3. Substitution

4. Conjunction
5. Lexical Cohesion

First 4 are about grammatical cohesion.

1 .Reference
Reference is an act of directing or indicating something by using
some linguistic elements. It is a systemic relation. It is considered
as a particular type of cohesion. E.g. pronouns, pro-modifiers.

Three types of reference:

1.1. Personal

1.2. Demonstrative

1.3. Comparative

Personal References:

Personal references are words that

stand for people or things, usually through pronouns like “he,”
“she,” “it,” “they,” “I,” and “we.” They help avoid repetition by
referring back to something already mentioned.

Example :

“ John was tired. He decided to rest.”

“ The car is new. It looks great.”

Demonstrative References:

Demonstrative references are

words that point to specific things or people, showing where they
are or identifying them. The main demonstrative references are
“this,” “that,” “these,” and “those.”

Example :

“ This is my favorite book.”

“ I like these shoes more than those.’

Comparative References:

Comparative references are used

to compare one thing or person to another. They often use words
like “more,” “less,” “as…as,” “than,” or “like.”
Example :

She is taller than her brother.

Manners of Reference
There are two categories of reference :

1.Endophoric

2.Exophoric

Endophoric Reference:

Endophoric reference happens when

the reference points to something inside the text. In other words,
the meaning of the reference is found within the text itself, either in
the previous or following part of the text.

Types of Endophoric Reference:

1. Anaphoric Reference: This refers to something mentioned

earlier in the text.

Example:

John went to the store.He bought some apples.

( “ He” refers back to “ John “,which was mentioned earlier in the

sentence.)

2. Cataphoric Reference: This refers to something that will be

mentioned later in the text.

Example:

“ Before she left, Mary said goodbye.”

(“She” refers to “Mary,” which comes later in the sentence.)

Exophoric Reference:

Exophoric reference happens when

the reference points to something outside the text. This means the
meaning of the reference relies on the reader’s knowledge of the
world or context beyond the text.

Example :

“ He is wearing a red shirt.”

(The word “he” refers to someone outside the text, and the reader
must understand the context to know who “he” is.)

Ellipsis:

This is when some words are left out because they can
be understood from the context.

Example:

“I like ice cream, and she does too.” (The phrase “like
ice cream” is understood after “she does.”)

Substitution:

This is when one part of the text is replaced with

another to avoid repetition.

Example: “I bought a red car. I love it.” (The word “it” substitutes
for “red car.”)

Conjunction:

This involves using words like “ and”, “but” ,” so”

,etc.,to link ideas and sentences together.
Example:

“She was tired ,but she kept working.”(The conjunction “

but” connects the two ideas.)

Lexical Cohesion:

This happens when words are connected by their

meanings, either through synonyms, antonyms or repetition.

Example:

“She loves cats.Cats make her happy.”( The word “

cats”links the two sentences.)

Textuality
Textuality refers to the quality of a text that makes it a coherent
whole, ensuring that it is meaningful and organized.

Key Features of Textuality:

Coherence:
This refers to the logical flow of ideas,
meaning that the content makes sense as a whole.

Example:

“She went to the store to buy bread. She needed it for

breakfast.”

Cohesion:
Cohesion is an important part of textuality. A
text needs to have both cohesion and coherence to be easily
understood.

Intentionality:
 This refers to the writer’s purpose in creating
the text and how all parts of the text work toward achieving that
goal.

Example:

If the writer’s goal is to inform, the text will provide

facts and explanations.

Acceptability:
This is the reader’s ability to understand and
accept the text.

Example:

A well-written story is easily accepted and

understood by readers.

Clause Relations
“ Clause relations focus on how sentences (or clauses) are
connected to each other. “In discourse, clauses can be related in
several ways.

Types of Clause Relations:

Parataxis:
This is when clauses are placed together without
any linking words, relying on punctuation (commas, periods) to
separate them.

Example:

“She walked to the store, bought milk, and came

back home.”

Hypotaxis:
This refers to one clause depending on another to
provide full meaning. These clauses are often connected by
subordinating conjunctions like “because,” “although,” or “if.”
Example:

“She stayed home because it was raining.”

Coordination:
This involves joining two independent clauses
(both can stand alone) with coordinating conjunctions like “and,”
“but,” or “or.”

Example:

“I wanted to go to the park, but it was too cold.”

Subordination:
This is when one clause is dependent on
another, making it subordinate or secondary in meaning.

Example:

“If it rains tomorrow, we will stay inside.” Causal

Relation:
A causal relation shows cause and
effect. One clause explains why something happens in the other
clause.

Example:

He missed the bus because he woke up late.

Conditional Relation:
This relation expresses a
condition or situation that must be true for something else to
happen. The clauses are often connected by “if” or “unless.”

Example:
 If you study, you will pass the exam.

Temporal Relation:
It relates to the timing of actions or
events. Words like “when,” “after,” “before,” “while,” or “until”
are used to connect clauses based on time.

Example:

I will call you when I get home.

(The second clause happens after the first clause.)

Contrasting Relation:
It shows a contrast or
difference between two clauses. Conjunctions like “but,” “however,”
or “on the other hand” are used.

Example:

She is very strict, but her sister is very relaxed.

(The two clauses contrast each other.)