How Computers Work: The CPU and Memory

Figure 0 shows the parts of a computer:

 The Central Processing Unit:

o (CPU),
o Buses,
o Ports and controllers,
o ROM;
 Main Memory (RAM);
 Input Devices;
 Output Devices;
 Secondary Storage;
o floppy disks,
o hard disk,
o CD-ROM

Figure 0: Inside The Computer

This part of the reading will examine the CPU, Buses, Controllers, and Main Memory. Other
sections will examine input devices, output devices, and secondary memory.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Figure 1: The Central Processing Unit
The computer does its primary work in a part of the machine we cannot see, a control center that
converts data input to information output. This control center, called the central processing unit
(CPU), is a highly complex, extensive set of electronic circuitry that executes stored program
instructions. All computers, large and small, must have a central processing unit. As Figure 1
shows, the central processing unit consists of two parts: The control unit and the arithmetic/logic
unit. Each part has a specific function.

Before we discuss the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit in detail, we need to consider
data storage and its relationship to the central processing unit. Computers use two types of
storage: Primary storage and secondary storage. The CPU interacts closely with primary storage,
or main memory, referring to it for both instructions and data. For this reason this part of the
reading will discuss memory in the context of the central processing unit. Technically, however,
memory is not part of the CPU.

Recall that a computer's memory holds data only temporarily, at the time the computer is
executing a program. Secondary storage holds permanent or semi-permanent data on some
external magnetic or optical medium. The diskettes and CD-ROM disks that you have seen with
personal computers are secondary storage devices, as are hard disks. Since the physical attributes
of secondary storage devices determine the way data is organized on them, we will discuss
secondary storage and data organization together in another part of our on-line readings.

Components of the central processing unit.

 The Control Unit

The control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire
computer system to carry out, or execute, stored program instructions. Like an orchestra leader,
the control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system
to do so. The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic/logic unit and memory.
 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit
The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and
logical operations.

The arithmetic/logic unit can perform four kinds of arithmetic operations, or mathematical
calculations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. As its name implies, the
arithmetic/logic unit also performs logical operations. A logical operation is usually a
comparison. The unit can compare numbers, letters, or special characters. The computer can then
take action based on the result of the comparison. This is a very important capability. It is by
comparing that a computer is able to tell, for instance, whether there are unfilled seats on
airplanes, whether charge- card customers have exceeded their credit limits, and whether one
candidate for Congress has more votes than another.

Logical operations can test for three conditions:

 Equal-to condition. In a test for this condition, the arithmetic/logic unit compares two
values to determine if they are equal. For example: If the number of tickets sold equals the
number of seats in the auditorium, then the concert is declared sold out.
 Less-than condition. To test for this condition, the computer compares values to
determine if one is less than another. For example: If the number of speeding tickets on a driver's
record is less than three, then insurance rates are $425; otherwise, the rates are $500.
 Greater-than condition. In this type of comparison, the computer determines if one
value is greater than another. For example: If the hours a person worked this week are greater
than 40, then multiply every extra hour by 1.5 times the usual hourly wage to compute overtime
pay.

A computer can simultaneously test for more than one condition. In fact, a logic unit can usually
discern six logical relationships: equal to, less than, greater than, less than or equal to, greater
than or equal to, and not equal.

The symbols that let you define the type of comparison you want the computer to perform are
called relational operators. The most common relational operators are the equal sign(=), the less-
than symbol(<), and the greater-than symbol(>).

 Registers: Temporary Storage Areas

Registers are temporary storage areas for instructions or data. They are not a part of memory;
rather they are special additional storage locations that offer the advantage of speed. Registers
work under the direction of the control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data and
perform arithmetic or logical comparisons at high speed. The control unit uses a data storage
register the way a store owner uses a cash register-as a temporary, convenient place to store what
is used in transactions.

Computers usually assign special roles to certain registers, including these registers:
o An accumulator, which collects the result of computations.
o An address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of
data is stored in memory. Each storage location in memory is identified by an address, just as
each house on a street has an address.
o A storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent
to memory.
o A general-purpose register, which is used for several functions.
 Memory and Storage
Memory is also known as primary storage, primary memory, main storage, internal storage, main
memory, and RAM (Random Access Memory); all these terms are used interchangeably by
people in computer circles. Memory is the part of the computer that holds data and instructions
for processing. Although closely associated with the central processing unit, memory is separate
from it. Memory stores program instructions or data for only as long as the program they pertain
to is in operation. Keeping these items in memory when the program is not running is not
feasible for three reasons:
o Most types of memory only store items while the computer is turned on; data is
destroyed when the machine is turned off.
o If more than one program is running at once (often the case on large computers
and sometimes on small computers), a single program can not lay exclusive claim to memory.
o There may not be room in memory to hold the processed data.

How do data and instructions get from an input device into memory? The control unit
sends them. Likewise, when the time is right, the control unit sends these items from
memory to the arithmetic/logic unit, where an arithmetic operation or logical operation is
performed. After being processed, the information is sent to memory, where it is hold
until it is ready to he released to an output unit.

The chief characteristic of memory is that it allows very fast access to instructions and
data, no matter where the items are within it.

 How the CPU Executes Program Instructions

Let us examine the way the central processing unit, in association with memory, executes a
computer program. We will be looking at how just one instruction in the program is executed. In
fact, most computers today can execute only one instruction at a time, though they execute it
very quickly. Many personal computers can execute instructions in less than one-millionth of a
second, whereas those speed demons known as supercomputers can execute instructions in less
than one-billionth of a second.
 Figure 2: The Machine Cycle
 Before an instruction can be executed, program instructions and data must be placed into
memory from an input device or a secondary storage device (the process is further complicated
by the fact that, as we noted earlier, the data will probably make a temporary stop in a register).
As Figure 2 shows, once the necessary data and instruction are in memory, the central processing
unit performs the following four steps for each instruction:

o The control unit fetches (gets) the instruction from memory.

o The control unit decodes the instruction (decides what it means) and
directs that the necessary data be moved from memory to the arithmetic/logic unit.
These first two steps together are called instruction time, or I-time.
o The arithmetic/logic unit executes the arithmetic or logical instruction.
That is, the ALU is given control and performs the actual operation on the data.
o Thc arithmetic/logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in
a register. Steps 3 and 4 together are called execution time, or E-time.

The control unit eventually directs memory to release the result to an output device or a
secondary storage device. The combination of I-time and E-time is called the machine
cycle. Figure 3 shows an instruction going through the machine cycle.

Each central processing unit has an internal clock that produces pulses at a fixed rate to
synchronize all computer operations. A single machine-cycle instruction may be made up
of a substantial number of sub-instructions, each of which must take at least one clock
cycle. Each type of central processing unit is designed to understand a specific group of
instructions called the instruction set. Just as there are many different languages that
people understand, so each different type of CPU has an instruction set it understands.
Therefore, one CPU-such as the one for a Compaq personal computer-cannot understand
the instruction set from another CPU-say, for a Macintosh.
Figure 3: The Machine Cycle in Action