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IGCSE Physics CIE Your notes

6.1 Earth & The Solar System

Contents
6.1.1 T he Earth, Moon & Sun
6.1.2 Calculating Orbital Speeds
6.1.3 T he Solar System
6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies
6.1.5 Gravitational Effects on Orbits

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6.1.1 The Earth, Moon & Sun

Your notes
The Earth's Axis
The Earth is a rocky planet that rotates in a near circular orbit around the Sun
It rotates on its axis, which is a line through the north and south poles
The axis is tilted at an angle of approximately 23.4° from the vertical
The Earth completes one full rotation (revolution) in approximately 24 hours (1 day)

This rotation creates the apparent daily motion of the Sun rising and setting
Rotation of the Earth on its axis is therefore responsible for the periodic cycle of day and
night
Day and Night
The Earth's rotation around its axis creates day and night
Day is experienced by the half of the Earth's surface that is facing the Sun
Night is the other half of the Earth's surface, facing away from the Sun

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Your notes

Use this image

Day and night are caused by the Earth's rotation

Rising and Setting of the Sun

The Earth's rotation on its axis makes the Sun looks like it moves from east to west
At the equinoxes the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west
Equinox (meaning 'equal night') is when day and night are approximately of equal length
However, the exact locations of where the Sun rises and sets changes throughout the seasons

In the northern hemisphere (above the equator):

In summer, the sun rises north of east and sets north of west
In winter, the sun rises south of east and sets south of west

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Your notes

Use this image

The Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Its approximate area changes throughout the year
The Sun is highest above the horiz on at noon (12 pm)
In the northern hemisphere, the daylight hours are longest up until roughly the 21st June
This day is known as the Summer Solstice and is where the Sun is at its highest point in the sky
all year
The daylight hours then decrease to their lowest around 21st December
This is known the Winter Solstice and is where the Sun is at its lowest point in the sky all year

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The Earth's Orbit

The Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days Your notes
This is 1 year
The combination of the orbiting of the Earth around the Sun and the Earth's tilt creates the
seasons

Use this image

Seasons in the Northern hemisphere caused by the tilt of the Earth
Over parts B, C and D of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun
This means daylight hours are more than hours of darkness
This is spring and summer
The southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
This means there are shorter days than night
This is autumn and winter
Over parts F, G and H of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
The situations in both the northern and southern hemisphere are reversed

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It is autumn and winter in the northern hemisphere, but at the same time it is spring and
summer in the southern hemisphere
At C: Your notes
This is the summer solstice
The northern hemisphere has the longest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its shortest
day
At G:
This is the winter solstice
The northern hemisphere has its shortest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its longest
day
At A and D:
Night and day are equal in both hemispheres
These are the equinoxes

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Moon & Earth

The Moon is a satellite around the Earth Your notes
It travels around the Earth in roughly a circular orbit once a month
This takes 27-28 days
The Moon revolves around its own axis in a month so always has the same side facing the Earth
We never see the hemisphere that is always facing away from Earth, although astronauts have
orbited the Moon and satellite have photographed it
The Moon shines with reflected light from the Sun, it does not produce its own light
Phases of the Moon
The way the Moon's appearance changes across a month, as seen from Earth, is called its
periodic cycle of phases

Use this image

Phases of the Moon as it orbits around Earth

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In the image above, the inner circle shows that exactly half of the Moon is illuminated by the Sun at
all times
The outer circle shows how the Moon looks like from the Earth at its various positions Your notes
In the New Moon phase:
The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun
Therefore, the sunlight is only on the opposite face of the Moon to the Earth
This means the Moon is unlit as seen from Earth, so it is not visible
At the Full Moon phase:
The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun
The side of the Moon that is facing the Earth is completely lit by the sunlight
This means the Moon is fully lit as seen from Earth
In between, a crescent can be seen where the Moon is partially illuminated from sunlight

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6.1.2 Calculating Orbital Speeds

Your notes
Orbital Speed
EXTENDED
When planets move around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet, they orbit in circular
motion
This means that in one orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to the circumference of a circle
(the shape of the orbit)
This is equal to 2πr where r is the radius a circle
The relationship between speed, distance and time is:
distance
Speed =
time
the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation:
2πr
v=
T
Where:
v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)
r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
T = orbital period in seconds (s)
This orbital period (or time period) is defined as:
The time taken for an object to complete one orbit
The orbital radius r is always taken from the centre of the object being orbited to the object
orbiting

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Your notes

Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun

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Worked example
Your notes
The Hubble Space Telescope moves in a circular orbit. Its distance above the Earth’s surface is
560 km and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. It completes one orbit in 96 minutes.

Calculate its orbital speed in m/s.

Step 1: List the known quantities

Radius of the Earth, R = 6400 km
Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface, h = 560 km
Time period, T = 96 minutes
Step 2: Write the relevant equation

2πr
v=
T
Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r
The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope
r=R+h

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Your notes

r = 6400 + 560 = 6960 km

Step 4: Convert any units
The time period needs to be in seconds
1 minute = 60 seconds
96 minutes = 60 × 96 = 5760 s
The radius needs to be in metres
1 km = 1000 m
6960 km = 6 960 000 m
Step 5: Substitute values into the orbital speed equation

2π × 6 960 000
v= = 7592 . 18 = 7590 m /s
5760

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Remember to check that the orbital radius r given is the distance from the centre of the Sun (if a
planet is orbiting a Sun) or the planet (if a moon is orbiting a planet) and not just from the surface. If
the distance is a height above the surface you must add the radius of the body, to get the height
above the centre of mass of the body.
This is because orbits are caused by the mass, which can be assumed to act at the centre, rather
than the surface.
Don't forget to check your units and convert any if required!

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6.1.3 The Solar System

Your notes
The Solar System
The Solar System consists of:
1. The Sun
2. Eight planets
3. Natural and artificial satellites
4. Dwarf planets
5. Asteroids and comets
The Sun & the Planets
The Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System
The Sun is a star that makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system
There are eight planets and an unknown number of dwarf planets which orbit the Sun
The gravitational field around planets is strong enough to have pulled in all nearby objects
with the exception of natural satellites
The gravitational field around a dwarf planet is not strong enough to have pulled in nearby
objects
The 8 planets in our Solar System in ascending order of the distance from the Sun are:
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Satellites
There are two types of satellite:
Natural
Artificial
Some planets have moons which orbit them
Moons are an example of natural satellites
Artificial satellites are man-made and can orbit any object in space
The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth and is an example of an artificial satellite

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Asteroids & Comets

Asteroids and comets also orbit the sun Your notes
An asteroid is a small rocky object which orbits the Sun
The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter
Comets are made of dust and ice and orbit the Sun in a different orbit to those of planets
The ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the comet’s tail

The objects in our solar system

Exam Tip
You need to know the order of the 8 planets in the solar system. The following mnemonic gives
the first letter of each of the planets to help you recall them:
My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Noodles
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

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Accretion Model of the Solar System

There are 4 rocky and small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars Your notes
These are the nearest to the Sun
There are 4 gaseous and large planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
There are the furthest from the sun

The eight planets of our Solar System

The differences in the types of planets are defined by the accretion model for Solar System
formation
The Sun was thought to have formed when gravitational attraction pulled together clouds of
hydrogen dust and gas (called nebulae)
The Solar System then formed around 4.5 billion years ago
The planets were formed from the remnants of the disc cloud of matter left over from the
nebula that formed the Sun
These interstellar clouds of gas and dust included many elements that were created during
the final stages of a star's lifecycle (a previous supernova)
Gravity collapsed the matter from the nebula in on itself causing it to spin around the Sun

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The gravitational attraction between all the small particles caused them to join together and
grow in an accretion process
A rotating accretion disc is formed when the planets emerged Your notes

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Your notes

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Your notes

The accretion model of the creation of the Solar System

As the Sun grew in siz e it became hotter
Where the inner planets were forming near the Sun, the temperature was too high for molecules
such as Hydrogen, Helium, water and Methane to exist in a solid state
Therefore, the inner planets are made of materials with high melting temperatures such as
metals (e.g. iron)
Only 1% of the original nebula is composed of heavy elements, so the inner, rocky planets
could not grow much and stayed as a small siz e, solid and rocky
The cooler regions were further away from the Sun, and temperature was low enough for the light
molecules to exist in a solid state
The outer planets therefore could grow to a large siz e up and include even the lightest
element, Hydrogen
These planets are large, gaseous and cold

Exam Tip
When referring to the accretion model for the formation of the Solar System, make sure your
answer has the following:
(a) the model’s dependence on gravity
(b) the presence of many elements in interstellar clouds of gas and dust
(c) the rotation of material in the cloud and the formation of an accretion disc

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6.1.4 Orbiting Bodies

Your notes
Light Speed
The planets and moons of the Solar System are visible from Earth when they reflect light from the
Sun
The outer regions of the Solar System are around 5 × 1012 m from the Sun, which means even
light takes some time to travel these distances
The light we receive on Earth from the Sun takes 8 minutes to reach us
The nearest star to us after the Sun is so far away that light from it takes 4 years to reach us
The Milky Way galaxy contains billions of stars, huge distances away, with the light taking even
longer to be seen from Earth
The speed of light is a constant 3 × 108 m/s
Therefore, using the equation:
distance
speed =
time
The time taken to travel a certain distance can be calculated by rearranging to:
distance
time =
speed

Worked example
The radius of Mercury's orbit around the Sun is 5.8 × 109 m.
Calculate the time taken for light from the Sun to reach Mercury.

Step 1: State the equation for the time taken for light to travel a certain distance

distance
time =
speed
Step 2: Substitute in the values
The distance travelled is the radius of the orbit
Distance, d = 5.8 × 109 m.
Speed = the speed of light, v = 3.0 × 108 m/s
5 . 8 × 109
time = = 1 . 933333
3 . 0 × 108

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Step 3: Round up the answer and include units

time = 19. 3 s Your notes

Exam Tip
The speed of light is very fast. This is why in our everyday life things like switching on a light seem
to be instant. However, this is only because the light travels very fast and the distances are very
small. In large, astronomical distances which can be millions or even billions of kilometres, the
limit of the speed of light starts to have an effect.
For example, it takes light 8 minutes to travel from the Sun to the Earth. This means we are seeing
the Sun as it was eight minutes ago. If the Sun was to disappear, we would not notice till eight
minutes later. Although, by that time, time delay would be the least of our worries...
p.s.: The Sun is not going to vanish!

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Elliptical Orbits
EXTENDED Your notes
Orbits of planets, minor planets and comets are elliptical
An ellipse is just a 'squashed' circle
Planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits
However, the Sun is not at the centre of an elliptical orbit
This is only the case when the orbit is approximately circular

Planets and comets travel in elliptical orbits, but the Sun is not at the centre of these orbits

Exam Tip
You will not be asked to do any calculations with elliptical orbits. If you are asked to calculate the
time period, orbital speed or radius of an orbit, it can be assumed that it is circular.

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Analysing Orbits
EXTENDED Your notes
Over many years, data about all the planets, moons and the Sun have been collected
This is not just for general interest, but to indicate:
Factors that affect conditions on the surface of the planets
Environmental problems that a visit (using manned spaceships or robots) would encounter
Table of Data for Planets in our Solar System

Uniform
Orbital Surface
Orbital duration / Density / Surface
Planet distance / Gravitational
days or years kg/m3 Temperature/ °C
million km Field Strength/
N/kg

Mercury 57.9 88 days 5427 350 3.7

Venus 108.2 225 days 5243 460 8.9
Earth 149.6 365 days 5514 20 9.8
Mars 227.9 687 days 3933 –23 3.7
Jupiter 778.6 11.9 years 1326 –120 23.1
Saturn 1433.5 29.5 years 687 –180 9.0
Uranus 2872.5 75 years 1271 –210 8.7
Neptune 4495.1 165 years 1638 –220 11.0

Exam Tip
Although you don't need to memorise any of this data, you must be able to confidently analyse
and interpret it. Look out for trends such as one variable increasing whilst the the other
decreases (or also increases). This carefully about why that may be with what you have already
learnt about the planets from this topic. For example, what is the planet made of? What is its
distance from the Sun and how does this affect it?

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6.1.5 Gravitational Effects on Orbits

Your notes
Gravitational Field Strength
The strength of gravity on different planets affects an object's weight on that planet
Weight is defined as:
The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction
Planets have strong gravitational fields
Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit

Objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth due to its gravitational field strength

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Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g differs between the
surface of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space, including the Moon because of the
planet or moon's mass Your notes
The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field strength
A higher gravitational field strength means a larger attractive force towards the centre of that
planet or moon
g varies with the distance from a planet, but on the surface of the planet, it is roughly the same
The strength of the field around the planet decreases as the distance from the planet
increases
However, the value of g on the surface varies dramatically for different planets and moons
The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the Earth
This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than on the Earth
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and Saturn) is more
than on the Earth
This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the Earth

Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System

On such planets such as Jupiter, an object’s mass remains the same at all points in space
However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be unable to fully
stand up

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Your notes

A person’s weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully stand up

Exam Tip
You do not need to remember the value of g on different planets for your exam, the value of g for
Earth will be given in the exam question.

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Gravitational Attraction of the Sun

There are many orbiting objects in our solar system and they each orbit a different type of Your notes
planetary body
Orbiting Objects or Bodies in Our Solar System Table

A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body

For example, a planet orbiting the Sun
In order to orbit a body such as a star or a planet, there has to be a force pulling the object
towards that body
Gravity provides this force
Therefore, it is said that the force that keeps a planet in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational
attraction of the Sun
The gravitational force exerted by the larger body on the orbiting object is always attractive
Therefore, the gravitational force always acts towards the centre of the larger body
Therefore, the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of
the Sun and is always directed from the orbiting object to the centre of the Sun
The gravitational force will cause the body to move and maintain in a circular path

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Your notes

Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth

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Sun's Gravitational Field & Distance

EXTENDED Your notes
As the distance from the Sun increases:
The strength of the Sun's gravitational field on the planet decreases
Their orbital speed of the planet decreases
To keep an object in a circular path, it must have a centripetal force
For planets orbiting the Sun, this force is gravity
Therefore, the strength of the Sun's gravitational field in the planet affects how much centripetal
force is on the planet
This strength decreases the further away the planet is from the Sun, and the weaker the
centripetal force
The centripetal force is proportional to the orbital speed
Therefore, the planets further away from the Sun have a smaller orbital speed
This also equates to a longer orbital duration

How the speed of a planet is affected by its distance from the Sun
This can be seen from data collected for a planet's orbital distance against their orbital speed
E.g. Neptune travels much slower than Mercury
Table of Orbital Distance, Speed and Duration

Planet Orbital distance / Orbital Speed / km/s Orbital duration / days

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million km or years

Your notes

Mercury 57.9 47.9 88 days

Venus 108.2 35.0 225 days
Earth 149.6 29.8 365 days
Mars 227.9 24.1 687 days
Jupiter 778.6 13.1 11.9 years
Saturn 1433.5 9.7 29.5 years
Uranus 2872.5 6.8 75 years
Neptune 4495.1 5.4 165 years

Exam Tip
Be careful with your wording in this topic when talking about gravity. It is important to refer to
the force of gravity as 'gravitational attraction', ' strength of the Sun's gravitational field' or 'the
force due to gravity'. Avoid terms such as 'the Sun's gravity' or even more vague, 'the force from
the Sun'.

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Orbits & Conservation of Energy

EXTENDED Your notes
An object in an elliptical orbit around the Sun travels at a different speed depending on its
distance from the Sun
Although these orbits are not circular, they are still stable
For a stable orbit, the radius must change if the comet's orbital speed changes
As the comet approaches the Sun:
The radius of the orbit decreases
The orbital speed increases due to the Sun's strong gravitational pull
As the comet travels further away from the Sun:
The radius of the orbit increases
The orbital speed decreases due to a weaker gravitational pull from the Sun

Comets travel in highly elliptical orbits, speeding up as they approach the Sun
Conservation of Energy
Although an object in an elliptical orbit, such as a comet, continually changes its speed its energy
must still be conserved

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Throughout the orbit, the gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy of the comet
changes
As the comet approaches the Sun: Your notes
It loses gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy
This causes the comet to speed up
This increase in speed causes a slingshot effect, and the body will be flung back out into
space again, having passed around the Sun
As the comet moves away from the Sun:
It gains gravitational potential energy and loses kinetic energy
This causes it to slow down
Eventually, it falls back towards the Sun once more
In this way, a stable orbit is formed

Exam Tip

Remember that an object's kinetic energy is defined by: where m is the mass of the
object and v is its speed. Therefore, if the speed of an object increases, so does its kinetic
energy. Its gravitational potential energy therefore must decrease for energy to be conserved.

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IGCSE Physics CIE Your notes

6.2 Stars & The Universe

Contents
6.2.1 T he Sun as a Star
6.2.2 Stars
6.2.3 T he Expanding Universe
6.2.4 T he Big Bang T heory
6.2.5 Hubble & T he Age of the Universe

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6.2.1 The Sun as a Star

Your notes
The Sun
The Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System
The Sun is a star which makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system
The fact that most of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated in the Sun is the reason
the smaller planets orbit the Sun
The gravitational pull of the Sun on the planets keeps them in orbit
The Sun is a medium sized star consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium
It radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum

Our Sun (Image courtesy of NASA)

Stars come in a wide range of siz es and colours, from yellow stars to red dwarfs, from blue giants
to red supergiants
These can be classified according to their colour
Warm objects emit infrared and extremely hot objects emit visible light as well
Therefore, the colour they emit depends on how hot they are
A star's colour is related to its surface temperature
A red star is the coolest (at around 3000 K)

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A blue star is the hottest (at around 30 000 K)

Your notes

The colour of a star correlates to its temperature

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Nuclear Fusion in Stars

EXTENDED Your notes
In the centre of a stable star, hydrogen atoms undergo nuclear fusion to form helium
The equation for the reaction is shown here:

Deuterium and Tritium are both isotopes of hydrogen. They can be formed through other fusion reactions
in the star
A huge amount of energy is released in the reaction
This provides a pressure that prevents the star from collapsing under its gravity

The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy

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Worked example
Your notes
An example of a hydrogen fusion reaction which takes place in stars is shown here.

Which of the following is a valid reason as to why hydrogen fusion is not currently possible on
Earth?
A Hydrogen fusion produces dangerous radioactive waste
B Hydrogen nuclei require very high temperature to fuse together
C Hydrogen is a rare element that would be difficult to get large amounts of
D Hydrogen fusion does not produce enough energy to be commercially viable

ANSWER: B
Hydrogen nuclei have positive charges
So two hydrogen nuclei would have a repulsive force between them
High temperatures are required to give the nuclei enough energy to overcome the repulsive
force
The answer is not A because the products of the hydrogen fusion shown in the reaction is
helium
Helium is an inert gas
The answer is not C because hydrogen is a very abundant element
It is the most common element in the universe
The answer is not D because hydrogen fusion would produce a huge amount of energy

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6.2.2 Stars
Your notes
The Milky Way
Galaxies are made up of billions of stars
The Universe is made up of many different galaxies
The Sun is one of billions of stars in a galaxy called the Milky Way
Other stars in the Milky Way galaxy are much further away from Earth than the Sun is
Some of these stars also have planets which orbit them

Our solar system is just one out of potentially billions in our galactic neighbourhood, the Milky Way. There
are estimated to be more than 100 billion galaxies in the entire universe

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Astronomical Distances
EXTENDED Your notes
Astronomical distances such as the distances between stars and galaxies, are so large that
physicists use a special unit to measure them called the light-year
One light-year is defined as:
The distance travelled by light through (the vacuum of ) space in one year
The speed of light is the universal speed limit, nothing can travel faster than the speed of light
But over astronomical distances, light actually travels pretty slowly
The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000 light-years
This means that light would take 100 000 years to travel across it
One light year is equal to 9.5 × 1012 km, or 9.5 × 10 15 m

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Star Formation
EXTENDED Your notes
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant interstellar cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it forms a hot ball of
gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes the
temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its core
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei
Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy which keeps the core hot
Once a star initiates fusion, it is known as a main-sequence star
During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force from the fusion
reactions

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Your notes

The outwards and inwards forces within a star are in equilibrium. The centre red circle represents the star's
core and the orange circle represents the star's outer layers
Once a protostar is formed, its life cycle will depend on its mass
The different life cycles are shown below

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Your notes

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Your notes

Flow diagram showing the life cycle of a star which is the same size as the Sun (solar mass) and the
lifecycle of a star which is much more massive than the Sun

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Life Cycle of Low Mass Stars

EXTENDED Your notes
A low-mass star will go through the following stages

The lifecycle of a low-mass star

4. Red Giant
After several billion years the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will begin to run out
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will become greater than the
outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases as the fusion dies down
A new series of reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium nuclei will undergo
fusion to form beryllium
These reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand
A low-mass star that is up to 8 times the mass of the Sun or smaller will become a red giant

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It is red because the outer surface starts to cool

5. Planetary Nebula Your notes
Once this second stage of fusion reactions have finished, the star will become unstable and
eject the outer layer of dust and gas
The layer of dust and gas which is ejected is called a planetary nebula
6. White Dwarf
The core which is left behind will collapse completely, due to the pull of gravity, and the star will
become a white dwarf
The white dwarf will be cooling down and as a result, the amount of energy it emits will decrease
7. Black Dwarf
Once the star has lost a significant amount of energy it becomes a black dwarf
It will continue to cool until it eventually disappears from sight

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Life Cycle of High Mass Stars

EXTENDED Your notes
A high-mass star will go through the following stages

Lifecycle of a high-mass star

4. Red Supergiant
After several million years, the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will begin to run
out
A high-mass star (one more than 8 times the mass of the Sun) will become a red supergiant
Similar to a low-mass star, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
The core will go through a series of periods of shrinking and heating up
As a result, the outer parts of the star will expand and contract
This time, fusion reactions will form elements all the way up to iron
Fusion reactions cannot continue once iron is formed
5. Supernova

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Once the fusion reactions inside the red supergiant cannot continue, the core of the star will
collapse suddenly and cause a gigantic explosion
This is called a supernova Your notes
At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form
The outer remnants of the star will be ejected into space during the supernova explosion,
forming new clouds of dust and gas (nebula)
The nebula from a supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets
6. Neutron Star (or Black Hole)
In the case of the biggest stars, the neutron star that forms at the centre will continue to
collapse under the force of gravity until it forms a black hole
A black hole is an extremely dense point in space that not even light can escape from

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6.2.3 The Expanding Universe

Your notes
Galaxies & Redshift
Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched out

Diagram showing the wavefronts produced from a stationary object and a moving object
A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to change:
The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases and the frequency increases
The wavelength behind the source increases and the frequency decreases
This effect is known as the Doppler effect

The Doppler effect also affects light

If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the spectrum
Redshift is:
An increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnet radiation emitted from receding
stars and galaxies

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Your notes

Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blueshifted and light from a star moving away
from an observer will be redshifted

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Your notes

The observer behind observes a red shift

The Milky Way is just one of billions of galaxies that make up the Universe

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Light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted when compared with light emitted on
Earth
Your notes
The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the Sun, and the
light coming to us from a distant galaxy

Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy
The diagram also shows that the light coming to us from distant galaxies is redshifted
The lines on the spectrum are shifted towards the red end
This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
If the galaxies are moving away from us it means that the universe is expanding
The observation of redshift from distant galaxies supports the Big Bang theory
Another observation from looking at the light spectrums produced from distant galaxies is that
the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy, the faster it is moving away from us

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Your notes

Graph showing the greater the distance to a galaxy, the greater the redshift

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6.2.4 The Big Bang Theory

Your notes
The Big Bang
Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that was extremely hot
and dense
Then there was a giant explosion, which is known as the Big Bang
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to form the
universe today
Each point expands away from the others
This is seen from galaxies moving away from each other, and the further away they are the
faster they move
Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is expanding and supports
the Big Bang Theory
As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to expand

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All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is expanding
An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents space and the points Your notes
as galaxies
When the balloon is deflated, all the points are close together and an equal distance apart
As the balloon expands, all the points become further apart by the same amount
This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

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Redshift and CMBR

Your notes
Evidence for the Big Bang
The Big Bang theory is very well supported by evidence from a range of sources
The main pieces of evidence are
Galactic red-shift
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)
Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift
Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of the universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the Sun, and the
light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy

Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy
Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:
Red-shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer to the red end
of the spectrum
This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so the wavelength
increases (or frequency decreases)
This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
Light spectrums produced from distant galaxies are red-shifted more than nearby galaxies
This shows that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from the Earth

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These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support the Big Bang
Theory
Your notes

Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea the universe began
with a “big bang”
EXTENDED
Evidence from CMB Radiation
The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) radiation led to the Big Bang theory
becoming the currently accepted model
The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the early stages of
the Universe
It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name Cosmic
Microwave Background radiation

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In 1964, Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the electromagnetic

spectrum coming from all directions and at a generally uniform temperature of 2.73 K
They were unable to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the atmosphere Your notes
Around this time, space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to send
telescopes into orbit above the atmosphere
According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was an extremely hot and dense environment
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
The radiation is in the microwave region
This is because over the past 14 billion years or so, the radiation initially from the Big Bang has
become redshifted as the Universe has expanded
Initially, this would have been high energy radiation, towards the gamma end of the spectrum
As the Universe expanded, the wavelength of the radiation increased
Over time, it has increased so much that it is now in the microwave region of the spectrum

The CMB is a result of high energy radiation being redshifted over billions of years
The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted from a hot
body that has cooled down over a very long time
This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State Theory) cannot
explain
The CMB is represented by the following map:

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Your notes

The CMB map with areas of higher and lower temperature. Places with higher temperature have a higher
concentration of galaxies, Suns and planets
This is the closest image to a map of the observable Universe
The different colours represent different temperatures
The red / orange / brown regions represent warmer temperature indicating a higher density
of galaxies
The blue regions represents cooler temperature indicating a lower density of galaxies
The temperature of the CMB radiation is mostly uniform, however, there are minuscule
temperature fluctuations (on the order of 0.00001 K)
This implies that all objects in the Universe are more or less uniformly spread out

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Measuring Galactic Speed & Distance

EXTENDED Your notes
Using Redshift Observations to Measure the Universe
The change in wavelength of the galaxy’s starlight due to redshift can be used to find the velocity,
v, with which a galaxy (or any distant object) is moving away from Earth
Using an equation to compare the ratio of the expected wavelength with the observed
wavelength, the velocity can be found;

differencebetweenactualwavelength and expectedwavelength speed of the galaxy

=
actualwavelength speed of light

This equation will not be directly examined but the idea that the velocity of distant objects can
be found from the redshift seen in easily observed wavelengths is an important one
Measuring Distance Using Supernovae
Redshift and CMB radiation allow various measurements of the Universe to be accurately made
Measuring distance is done using different methods
A key method is the use of standard candles, including supernovae
Supernovae are exploding stars
Certain types have the same peak level of brightness (absolute magnitude), making them
extremely useful in measuring the distance to remote stars and galaxies
Type 1a supernovae are so bright that they can be seen clearly even though they may be deep
inside their parent galaxy
This allows the distance to the galaxy to be calculated

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6.2.5 Hubble & The Age of the Universe

Your notes
Hubble Constant Calculations
EXTENDED
In 1929, the astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that the universe was expanding
He did this by observing the absorption line spectra produced from the light of distant
galaxies
He discovered that the light was shifted towards the red end of the spectrum
This Doppler shift in the wavelength of the light is evidence that distant galaxies are moving
away from the Earth
Hubble also observed that light from more distant galaxies was more red-shifted than the light
from nearer galaxies
This observation showed that galaxies or stars which are further away from the Earth are
moving faster than galaxies which are closer

Examples of redshifted line spectra for galaxies at different distances from the Earth compared to a
laboratory sample
Hubble's Law
Hubble’s law states:
The recessional velocity v of a galaxy is proportional to its distance from Earth
Hubble’s law can be expressed as an equation:
v
H0 =
d
Where:

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H0 = Hubble constant (per second)

v = recessional velocity of an object, the velocity of an object moving away from an observer
(km/s) Your notes
d = distance between the object and the Earth (km)
As the equation shows, the Hubble Constant, H0 is defined as:
The ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth, to its
distance from the Earth
The accepted value of the Hubble constant is H0 = 2.2 × 10 –18 per second

Exam Tip
Make sure to learn the currently accepted value of the Hubble constant.
You will be expected to know that the current estimate for H0 is 2.2 × 10–18 per second

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Age of the Universe

EXTENDED Your notes
Since Hubble's Law states that
v
H0 =
d
It can be rearranged to show that
1 d
=
H0 v
Hubble’s law shows that the further away a star is from the Earth, the faster it is moving away from
us

A key aspect of Hubble’s law is that the furthest galaxies appear to move away the fastest
The gradient of the graph can be used to find the Age of the Universe
When the distance equals z ero, this represents all the matter in the Universe being at a single
point
This is the singularity that occurred at the moment of the Big Bang

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The units of the gradient are per second (the same as the units of the Hubble Constant)
1
By taking the reciprocal, or, the units will become seconds Your notes
H0
Therefore the reciprocal of the gradient represents time and gives the amount of time which
the Universe has been expanding for
Astronomers have used this formula to estimate the age of the Universe at about 13.7 billion years

Worked example
A distant galaxy is 20 light-years away from Earth.
Use Hubble’s Law to determine the velocity of the galaxy as it moves away from Earth.
The Hubble constant is currently agreed to be 2.2 x 10-18 s -1.
1 light year ≈ 9.5 x 1015 m

Step 1: List the known quantities:

d = 20 light years
Ho = 2.2 x 10-18 s -1
Step 2: Convert 20 light-years to m:
1 ly ≈ 9.5 x 1015 m
So, 20 ly = 20 x (9.5 x 1015) = 1.9 x 1017 m
Step 3: Substitute values into Hubble's Law:
From the data booklet: v ≈ H0 d
So, v ≈ (2.2 x 10-18 ) x (1.9 x 1017) = 0.418 m s -1
Step 4: Confirm your answer:
The velocity of the galaxy as it moves away from Earth 0.42 m s -1

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