religions

Article
The Mandorla Symbol in Byzantine and Post-Byzantine
Iconography of the Dormition: Function and Meaning
Rostislava Georgieva Todorova

Department of Visual Arts, Konstantin Preslavsky University, 9700 Shumen, Bulgaria; [email protected]

Abstract: The present study examines the use of the mandorla symbol in Byzantine and post-
Byzantine iconography of the Dormition. The research aims to outline the reasons for the adoption
of the mandorla in the iconographic scheme of the subject as a means of visualizing the heavenly
Eden and the Glory of God’s presence. It traces the main stages in the development of the Dormition
iconography and the creation of its principal models, highlighting the diversity of the patterns in the
post-Byzantine art in the Balkans.

Keywords: Dormition of the Theotokos; Dormition iconography; mandorla; Glory of God; Byzantine
art; post-Byzantine art

1. Introduction
Between the 6th and 14th centuries, the iconographic models of some of the central
feasts in the Church calendar gradually took form. Their development reflects the religious
milieu of the time, the struggle against heresies, and the accompanying development of
theological thought. One of these models is the depiction of the Dormition of the Theotokos,
which despite the relatively quickly established basic scheme, continues to undergo late
changes. One of them is the introduction of the symbol of the mandorla somewhere in the
second half of the 11th century—a topic on which we will focus our attention here, due to
Citation: Todorova, Rostislava
the function of the mandorla as a visual representation of the Glory of God in its twofold
Georgieva. 2023. The Mandorla
meaning—spatial and luminous (Todorova 2016).
Symbol in Byzantine and
Post-Byzantine Iconography of the
In Christian iconography, the mandorla is employed in certain iconic scenes, encom-
Dormition: Function and Meaning.
passing the figures of Christ, the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, and occasionally, specific
Religions 14: 473. https://doi.org/ saints. The mandorla serves to demarcate a sacred space around Christ. This separated
10.3390/rel14040473 space can be interpreted as a representation of heaven, or the “other world”, as a metaphys-
ical realm where sacred events occur, and as a symbol of the resplendent Divine Light of
Academic Editor: José
the Glory of God (Todorova 2013, 2020b). In some of the iconographical subjects in which
María Salvador González
it is involved, the mandorla primarily conveys a luminous connotation, as is the case, for
Received: 23 February 2023 example, in the Transfiguration of Christ, while in other subjects such as the Dormition of
Revised: 22 March 2023 the Theotokos, its meaning is more spatial, as this research aims to demonstrate. While in
Accepted: 27 March 2023 the case of the Transfiguration, the mandorla symbol has been a part of the iconographical
Published: 2 April 2023 2023 scheme since the beginning, in the Dormition scene, it was introduced much later, appar-
ently following the development of theological debates. Furthermore, what is even more
interesting is that the Dormition mandorla follows the dynamic character of the symbol
and its ability to reflect the theological ideas of the time. It also takes on features that
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
researchers attribute to the influence of Hesychasm on the late Byzantine art, as seen with
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
the Transfiguration mandorla, while in the post-Byzantine period, it enjoys a similar variety
This article is an open access article
in form and color (Todorova 2022a). Therefore, the aim of the present study is to outline the
distributed under the terms and
reasons for the adoption of the mandorla in the iconographic scheme of the Dormition of
conditions of the Creative Commons
the Theotokos as a means of visualizing the heavenly Eden and the Glory of God’s presence
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
and to trace its development in Byzantine and post-Byzantine art in the Balkans.
4.0/).

Religions 2023, 14, 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040473 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

Religions 2023, 14, 473 2 of 27

2. The Iconography of the Dormition

Following the definitive affirmation of the Virgin Mary as Theotokos at the Third
Ecumenical Council in Ephesus in 431, devotion to her spread widely, and events from her
life gained a prominent place in the Church’s liturgical calendar (Baryames 1977, pp. 11–13).
The feast of her Dormition began to be celebrated in the 5th century (Walsh 2007, p. 2), and
its final establishment on August 15th was decreed by Emperor Maurice Tiberius (582–602)
at the Church of the Most Holy Theotokos in Blachernae (Pentcheva 2006, p. 12). After
the end of Iconoclasm, the iconographic image of the Dormition began to appear more
frequently and became especially popular in the middle and late Byzantine culture. Its
importance stems from the theological need to affirm the truth of the human nature of the
Lord Jesus Christ—the human, mortal body of Christ is a fundamental argument against
the Iconoclastic heresy, because it proves that the divine can be imaged and those images
can be venerated. The Dormition of the Theotokos, in turn, constitutes the final proof of
the reality of the human nature of the Son of God (Weyl Carr 1997, pp. 114–15).
The iconography of the feast is based on numerous written sources (Salvador-González
2011, pp. 238–39), the main ones being the second homily on the Dormition of St. John
Damascene and the “Pastoral letter” of Archbishop John I of Thessaloniki. Both works are
based on the Transitus Mariae legend, attributed to St. James Brother of the Lord, as well
as on the accounts of the main non-canonical sources, the latest of which date from the
6th–7th century period (Baryames 1977, pp. 14–33; Najork 2018, pp. 478–79). The classic
iconographic scheme represents the Holy Virgin lying on a bier surrounded symmetrically
by the holy apostles while the Lord Jesus Christ stands behind the bed, holding in His hands
the soul of the Theotokos depicted as a swaddled infant and raising her towards an angel
who will take her to heaven. In the 10th century, it was fully developed and widespread,
as shown by several reliefs from Constantinople and isolated examples of liturgical icons
from that time. The composition was elaborated in the period of 11th–12th century so as
to include buildings sheltering mourning women, bishops, the holy apostles on clouds,
as well as the figure of Jephonias the Jew, whose hands were cut off by an angel due to
his attempt to gather the bier of the Virgin and miraculously healed after he professed
Christianity. The composition was further developed in the Palaiologan period, when more
episodes from a longer narrative were added, some of which show the reception of the
Theotokos in heaven, whose gates are widely open above (Taft and Carr 1991, pp. 651–53).
The subject of the continuity and variation of the Dormition iconography will remain, to a
certain extent, unclear until comprehensive research of the type of Anna Kartsonis’ study of
the Anastasis iconography (Kartsonis 1986) is conducted. The present article focuses solely
on the question of the appearance and evolution of the mandorla symbol in the visual
scheme of the Dormition.

3. The Symbol of Mandorla in Byzantine Iconography of the Dormition

3.1. Early Examples without Mandorla
A small eulogia token from Bet She’an, Israel of the 6th century is probably the earliest
known fragmentary representation of the subject (Rahmani 1993, pp. 113–14). R. Baryames
also mentions a wall image from the Basilica of Holy Sion, Jerusalem from the same century,
preserved due to a later sketch (Baryames 1977, p. 34, fig. 2), as well as several Western
images from the 7th–9th centuries (Ibid., pp. 42–48). Four reliefs from the second half of
the 10th century and two more from the 11th century demonstrate the already established
iconographical scheme of the Dormition (Salvador-González 2017, pp. 192–93), in which
the symbol of the mandorla has yet to find a place. The mandorla is absent from the
composition not only during the 10th and 11th centuries but often even during the 12th
century. However, a more thorough search reveals that as early as the second half of the
11th century, there are signs of the gradual introduction of the idea of visualizing the
heavenly Eden, which in turn, paves the way for the use of the mandorla as well, and by
the 12th century, images of the Dormition with mandorlas were already encountered. In a
Constantinopolitan icon from the second half of the 11th century,1 part of the collection of
Religions 2023, 14, 473 3 of 27

the Monastery of Saint Catherine (Lazarev 1986, p. 97, tab. 324), several angels are visible
in the sky, three of whom on the right carry the soul of the Virgin Mary to heaven. These
angels, as well as the others on the left, are depicted waist-high, as if peering from another
space, and this impression is particularly strong in the left group—the area around the
figures looks like a cloud or a cavity. At the upper edge of the icon are depicted seraphim
with wings intertwined above their heads, thus, forming the heavens into which the Holy
Virgin will enter.
The use of “clouds” housing angelic powers was also seen a century earlier, in the
iconographic programs of Cappadocian churches. For example, in the Dormition fresco in
the New Church of Tokali Kilise, Turkey, dated to the second half of the 10th century, the
apostles coming on clouds are depicted in a kind of medallion (Jolivet-Lévy 1991, pp. 102–3).
It is interesting that the mandorla around the figure of Christ is missing here, but He is still
framed by a rectangular architectural structure with a triangular roof behind Him and is
accompanied by an angel (Maguire 2019, pp. 60–61, fig. 49). In the fresco from the Church
of Saint Sophia in Ohrid, Republic of North Macedonia (ca. 1050), which closely follows the
scheme known from the reliefs, two elongated “alveoli” are already present in the upper
corners, each containing six holy apostles (Salvador-González 2017, p. 222). These clouds or
“cavities” in the real space in which the miracle of the Dormition takes place illustrate the
apocryphal stories about the miraculous presence of all the holy apostles around the bed of
the Virgin Mary, brought “on the wings of the clouds” (Dormition of the All-Holy Theotokos
and How the Undefiled Mother of Our Lord was Translated., vers. 22–23. In (Shoemaker 2002,
pp. 360–61; Panagopoulos 2013, pp. 343–51).
The subsequent inclusion of the mandorla in the iconographic scheme can be explained
in the same way—the only reason for this should be the mention of the Glory of God in
the apocryphal sources of the Dormition story. For example, Pseudo-Melito describes the
event that most likely became the reason for the depiction of the mandorla filled with
angelic powers:
“But the apostles carrying Mary came into the place of the valley of Iosaphat which the
Lord have showed them, and laid her in a new tomb and shut the sepulchre. But they
sat down at the door of the tomb as the Lord had charged them: and lo, suddenly the
Lord Jesus Christ came with a great multitude of angels, and light flashing with great
brightness, and said to the apostles: Peace be with you”. (Pseudo-Melito. De Transitu
Virginis Mariæ Liber., XVI. In: (James 1924, p. 215).)
The manifestation of the Glory of God in the form of a blinding light that surrounds
the holy apostles is also present in the story of Joseph of Arimathea:
“’Then the apostles laid the body in the tomb with great honour, weeping and singing for
pure love and sweetness. And suddenly a light from heaven shone round about them, and
as they fell to the earth, the holy body was taken up by angels into heaven’ (the apostles
not knowing it)”. (Pseudo-Joseph of Arimathea. De Transitu Virginis Mariæ Liber.,
16. In: (James 1924, p. 217).)
The iconographic subject for the Dormition is not the only one influenced by the
non-canonical literature. The Gospel accounts of the Transfiguration, Resurrection, and
Ascension of Christ are also lacking in detail, which presents a significant challenge for
iconographers when creating their pictorial schemes. They had to rely on additional sources,
as well as the interpretations and teachings of experienced clerics, to create the visual scenes
for these events. Sometimes, a successful iconographic solution includes avoiding a too
narrative representation of the event in favor of a more symbolic image. This approach can
also be applied in regards to the appearance of the mandorla symbol in the iconography of
the Dormition.
The details of the story of the Dormition, which originate from non-canonical sources,
are widely accepted in Church tradition, as evidenced by a summary made by St. John
Damascene in his homily on the subject, according to how he heard the story from St.
Juvenal of Jerusalem. Here, a direct connection is even made between the person of the
Religions 2023, 14, 473 4 of 27

Theotokos and the Glory of God, which also serves as an illustration of the prerequisites
for the addition of the mandorla symbol to the iconography of the Dormition:
“ . . . The Holy Scripture inspired by God does not tell what happened in the death of the
Holy Theotókos Mary, but we rely on an ancient tradition and very true that at the time
of her glorious Dormition, all the holy apostles, which roamed the earth for the salvation
of the nations, were assembled in an instant through the air in Jerusalem. When they
were close to her, angels appeared to them in a vision, and a divine concert of the higher
power was heard. And so, in a divine and heavenly glory, the Virgin gave her holy soul in
the God’s hands in an ineffable way . . . ”. (Saint Jean Damascène, Deuxième discours
sur l’illustre Dormition de la Toute Sainte et toujours Vierge Marie, 18. In: (Saint Jean
Damascène 1961, p. 173).)

3.2. Appearance of Mandorla without Inscribed Angelic Powers

After the first manifestations of “spatial” symbols in the iconography of the feast in the
11th century, in the 12th century, examples with a clearly defined mandorla were already
observed, but the introduction of the symbol was far from widespread. For example, in
the Transfiguration icon from Zarzma, Georgia, the twelfth-century reworking of its frame
contains a Dormition scene in which the mandorla is missing (Eastmond 2011, pp. 73–78,
fig. 5.5f). In one of the most well-preserved examples of the 12th century, the fresco
from the Church of Agios Nikolaos Kasnitzi in Kastoria, Greece dated ca. 1170–1180, the
mandorla and even the “alveoli” for the angels are also missing (Malmquist 1979, p. 53).
The mandorla is also missing in the fresco from the Transfiguration Cathedral at the Pskov
Spaso-Preobrazhensky Mirozhsky monastery, Russia, dating from the 12th century. On the
other hand, the iconographic program of the Church of St. George in Kurbinovo, Republic
of North Macedonia, dated ca. 1190, contains the Dormition scene in which Christ is
depicted in a wide oval mandorla with a blue-green core and a white band, behind which
the angelic forces are depicted (Figure 1) (Dimitrova 2016, pp. 8–9, 21). There is one more
noticeable feature in this fresco as well—the iconography of the subject is related to the
iconography of the Nativity of Christ due to the way the soul of the Virgin is represented.
She is depicted not as a motionless image of a tightly swaddled baby but as a semi-seated
infant, dressed in a looser robe and with arched legs. In addition, the position of the hands
of Christ is the same as on the opposite fresco of the Virgin Hodegetria. This tendency to
consciously create parallels between the iconography of the Dormition and the Nativity
continued throughout the following centuries, for example, in the 13th century Dormition
fresco in Sopoćani, Serbia (Maguire 2019, pp. 61–62).
In the Dormition fresco from the Church of The Panagia tou Araka in Lagoudera,
Cyprus from 1192 (Figure 2), Christ is depicted taking the soul of the Virgin into a pointed
monochrome mandorla placed against a blue background. The mandorla is outlined by
two or three pale blue bands that disappear towards its core, which seems to be filled
with clouds. A. Stilianou and J. A. Stilianou believe that the humanism of the time is
clearly visible in this image, and based on its comparison with the homonymous fresco
from the Church of Panagia Phorbiotissa in Asinou, Cyprus from the early 12th century,
they conclude that the replacement of the restrained and alienated Christ with a more
emotional and moving version of Him shows the processes in the development of the
Constantinopolitan style in iconography during the Komnenian period (Stilianou and
Stylianou 1997, pp. 169–70, 121).
 Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27
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Figure 1. Dormition of the Theotokos, wall painting, ca. 1190, Church of St. George, Kurbinovo, Re-
Figure1.1.Dormition
Figure Dormitionofofthethe Theotokos,
Theotokos, wall
wall painting,
painting, ca. 1190,
ca. 1190, Church
Church of St.ofGeorge,
St. George, Kurbinovo,
Kurbinovo, Re-
Republic
public of North Macedonia. (Photo credit: Pravoslavnyy Svyato-Tikhonovskiy Gumanitarnyy Universi-
public
of of North Macedonia. (Photo credit: Pravoslavnyy Svyato-Tikhonovskiy Gumanitarnyy
North Macedonia. (Photo credit: Pravoslavnyy Svyato-Tikhonovskiy Gumanitarnyy Universitet). Universi-
tet).
tet).

Figure 2. Dormition of the Theotokos, wall painting, 1192, Church of The Panagia tou Araka,
Figure2.2.Dormition
Figure Dormitionof the
of Theotokos, wall painting,
the Theotokos, 1192, Church
wall painting, of The Panagia
1192, Church of Thetou Araka, Lagoudera,
Panagia tou Araka,
Lagoudera,
Cyprus. Cyprus.
(Photo (Photo
credit:(Photo credit:
Angelcredit: Angel
Yordanov, Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
TerraByzantica).
Lagoudera, Cyprus. Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
Religions 2023, 14, 473 6 of 27
Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 27

The same scheme can be found in a miniature from the late 12th century from the
The same
collection of The scheme
Britishcan be found
Library (Figurein a3).miniature
The Harley fromMSthe1810late 12th century from
Tetraevangelion, whichthe
collection of The British Library (Figure 3). The Harley MS 1810 Tetraevangelion,
contains the illustration, is believed to have originated from Nicaea, Cyprus, Jerusalem, or which
contains
even Mount the Athos.
illustration,
Despiteis believed to have originated
the controversy from Nicaea,
over its provenance, the Cyprus, Jerusalem,
general consensus
orthat
is eventheMount Athos. Despite
handwriting the controversy
and quality over its in
of the miniatures provenance,
the book are thefar
general
aboveconsensus
average,
is that the that
indicating handwriting
it is not and quality of the
an “ordinary” miniatures
Gospel (Lowden in the book
1997, pp.are384–85).
far above Theaverage,
main
indicating that it is not an “ordinary” Gospel (Lowden 1997, pp. 384–85).
feature of this miniature is that it illustrates an event that is not of a gospel nature. Along The main feature
of this
with theminiature
image ofisSt. that it illustrates
John the Baptist,an event
these that is not
scenes areof a gospel
not commonlynature. Along withinthe
encountered a
image of St. John the Baptist, these scenes are not commonly
Tetraevangelion. The Dormition is the third miniature in the Gospel of Luke and encountered in a Tetraevan-
it reveals
gelion.
some The Dormition
typical 12th century is the third miniature
changes in the Gospel
in the iconographic schemeof Luke and
of the it reveals
subject. Thesome
first
typical is
feature 12th
thecentury
depiction changes in the
of Christ noticonographic
in the middle scheme
of the of
bed the subject.
but closerThe first
to its upperfeature
edge is
the depiction
(Yota 2021, pp.of47, Christ not inSuch
126–31). the middle of the bed
a composition but closer
occurs in the to its upper edge
homonymous (Yotain2001,
scenes the
pp. 47, 126–31).
Church Such a composition
of The Panagia tou Araka inoccurs in the Cyprus
Lagoudera, homonymous scenes1996,
(Nicolaïdès in thepp.Church
96–104,of
The Panagia tou Araka in Lagoudera, Cyprus (Nicolaïdès 1996, pp.
fig. 73); the Boyana Church, Bulgaria (Grabar 1978, p. 47, fig. 4); and several Cappadocian 96–104, fig. 73); the
Boyana Church, Bulgaria (Grabar 1978, p. 47, fig. 4); and several Cappadocian churches.
churches.

Figure 3. Dormition
Figure Dormition of the Theotokos,
of the miniature,
Theotokos, late 12th
miniature, late century, Harley Harley
12th century, MS 1810,MSfol.1810,
174r, fol.
22.5 ×174r,
16.5
cm (page),
22.5 The (page),
× 16.5 cm British Library, London.
The British (Photo
Library, credit:
London. The British
(Photo credit: Library).
The British Library).

The second
The second feature
feature concerns
concerns thethe way
way in
in which
which the
the mandorla
mandorla is is depicted
depicted asas aa symbol
symbol
of the
of the Glory
Glory of
of God.
God. According
According to to E.
E. Yota,
Yota,the
the mandorla
mandorla in in this
this miniature
miniature follows
follows neither
neither
the round
the round shape typical of of monumental
monumentalpainting
paintingatatthe
thetime
timenornorthe theoval
ovalshape
shape typical
typicalof
of miniatures and icons but is represented in the form of an almond. This
miniatures and icons but is represented in the form of an almond. This applies to the man- applies to the
mandorlas
dorlas in theinAscension
the Ascension andTransfiguration
and the the Transfiguration miniatures
miniatures in theinsame
the same manuscript
manuscript (Yota
(Yota
2001,2021, p. 111).
p. 111). Yota Yota
cites cites two additional
two additional examples
examples in addition
in addition to Harley
to Harley MS MS18101810
wherewherethe
the Dormition
Dormition mandorla
mandorla is oval
is oval andand vertically
vertically pointed—the
pointed—the partially-destroyed
partially-destroyed miniature
miniature in
Malibu Getty Ms. Ludwig II 5 from the early 13th century2 and the fresco in the Church of
Religions 2023, 14, 473 7 of 27

in Malibu Getty Ms. Ludwig II 5 from the early 13th century2 and the fresco in the Church of
The Panagia tou Araka in Lagoudera. Yota finds an explanation for this peculiarity of the
mandorla in the apocryphal sources that describe how the Lord Jesus Christ comes “on
clouds” to take the soul of the Virgin Mary. The account of Joseph of Arimathea quoted
above describes the Lord’s appearance in splendor that caused those present to fall to the
ground, as happened with the holy apostles at Tabor. Based on this, Yota concludes that
the mandorla in the Dormition of the Theotokos in Harley MS 1810 replicates the shining
mandorla of Christ from the scenes of His Transfiguration and Ascension. Citing various
arguments, Yota is inclined to indicate the source of this iconography of the miniature as
the fresco from the Church of The Panagia tou Araka, emphasizing that Harley MS 1810 is
the first case in which the Dormition scene was included in the iconographical program of
a Tetraevangelion, and the reason for this is likely purely liturgical. The pointed almond-
shaped type of the mandorla is one of the pieces of evidence supporting the author’s
hypothesis about the origin of the miniature (Yota 2021, pp. 131–35, 213–14, 252).
Regardless of whether Yota is right or not, in this particular case, it is necessary to
explicitly mention another specific feature of the oval-pointed mandorla in the Dormition
miniature—its emphasized spatial character. Christ is literally emerging from the middle of
the blue three-layered mandorla. This effect is achieved by depicting the blue garment of the
Lord in the same shade as the core of the mandorla. The folds in His garments are marked
by thin white lines, as well as the separate layers of His mandola. This monochromaticity
later becomes common in the depiction of angelic forces inside the mandorla, but here, it
directly creates the impression of Christ passing from one space to another.
For the completeness of the study, due attention should be given to the Dormition
fresco from the western wall of the nave in the Bachkovo Monastery, Bulgaria, dated ca.
1180. From an iconographic perspective, this fresco allows researchers to establish the
roots of a late Byzantine art tradition that was particularly popular in Bulgaria during
the Middle Ages. The interpretation of the scene follows established 11th–12th century
Byzantine traditions for depicting the subject, but the main image is flanked by the images
of two Syrian hymnographers—St. Cosmas of Maiuma and St. John Damascene—authors
of many hymns and homilies for the Dormition of the Theotokos. The two saints hold
scrolls inscribed with carefully selected quotations from their works on the subject. This
artistic solution is completely in line with the Komnenian period, where the use of texts
often accompanied monumental painting as their commentaries. However, A. Grabar notes
that the depiction of the images of Syrian saints hymnographers around the scene of the
Dormition occurred for the first time here in Bachkovo (Bakalova et al. 2003, pp. 69–70,
fig. 53). Regarding the mandorla in the fresco, no conclusions can be drawn due to the poor
condition of the image. Researchers such as E. Yota and A. Nicolaïdès have drawn parallels
between the aforementioned examples and the fresco in Bachkovo, but today, we can only
observe that the position of Christ is central to the Virgin’s bed and that we cannot judge
whether His figure was enveloped in a mandorla.
Growing reverence for the Virgin Mary and the intense formulation and enrichment
of Mariological dogmatics in the 11th–12th centuries were likely the strongest factor that
influenced the development and final formation of the iconographic subject of the Dormi-
tion of the Theotokos. As a result, in the 12th century, the scene not only spread widely
in icon painting, mosaics, and monumental art but also continuously complicated its
composition and increased its narrative, including more and more apocryphal details
(Salvador-González 2017, p. 202). From the 13th century onwards, the subject of the Dormi-
tion began to occupy the entire western wall of the nave, incorporating many additional
scenes and becoming an iconographic cycle in its own right.

3.3. Addition of Star-Shaped Geometric Forms to the Mandorla

Some of the most significant examples from the late 13th century demonstrate a new
change in the symbol of the mandorla—the addition of star-shaped geometric forms. An
example in this regard is the famous Dormition fresco from the Church of the Holy Mother
Religions 2023, 14, 473 8 of 27
Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27

of God Peribleptos in Ohrid, Republic of North Macedonia from 1294/5 (Figure 4), the work
of the of
work painters Michael
the painters Astrapas
Michael and Euthychius,
Astrapas who probably
and Euthychius, came came
who probably from Thessaloniki
from Thessa-
(Velmans 1999, p. 194) and worked there together with some local masters
loniki (Velmans 1999, p. 194) and worked there together with some local masters (Lazarev 1986,
(Lazarev
p. 139, tab. 451). The two Greek artists 3 brought with them all the features of the best
1986, p. 139, tab. 451). The two Greek artists3 brought with them all the features of the best
Byzantine
Byzantinetraditions
traditionsofofthe
thesecond
secondhalf
halfofofthe
the13th
13thcentury, mixed
century, with
mixed thethe
with new stylistics
new of
stylistics
the Paleologan period, which gradually spread further and further from its
of the Paleologan period, which gradually spread further and further from its capital capital source
(Djuric
source 2000, pp.
(Djuric 54–58,
2000, pp.542).
54–58, 542).

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Dormition
Dormitionofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,wall
wallpainting, 1294/5,
painting, Church
1294/5, of the
Church of Holy Mother
the Holy of God
Mother Peri-
of God
bleptos, Ohrid, Republic of North Macedonia. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
Peribleptos, Ohrid, Republic of North Macedonia. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).

The large
The large fresco
frescodetails
details the
theentire
entirenarrative
narrativeof ofthe
theDormition
Dormition of of the
the Theotokos
Theotokos as as itit is
is
presentedin
presented inthe
themain
mainapocryphal
apocryphalsources.
sources. Without
Withoutdwelling
dwellingon onthe
the other
otherdetails,
details, we
we will
will
only focus
only focus on on the
the manner
manner in in which
which thethe sacred
sacred space
space is is represented.
represented. ChristChrist is is depicted
depicted in in aa
wide oval mandorla whose outlines follow the posture of His
wide oval mandorla whose outlines follow the posture of His body bent over the bed of the body bent over the bed of
the Theotokos.
Theotokos. The The mandorla
mandorla has ahas a dark
dark core,core,
fromfromwhich which
radiallyradially symmetrical
symmetrical wide wide
dark dark
rays
rays emerge.
emerge. TheseThese
rays rays
do notdoextend
not extend
beyondbeyond the boundaries
the boundaries of theof the symbol.
symbol. TheThe remain-
remaining
ing part
part of theof mandorla
the mandorla is golden,
is golden, andand its border
its border is marked
is marked by abywide,
a wide, translucent
translucent stripe.
stripe. A
A golden
golden square
square star-like
star-like shape,shape, rimmed
rimmed withwith
a thina thin
whitewhite
line, isline, is depicted
depicted around around
the head the
head
of Lordof Jesus
Lord Jesus
ChristChrist
behind behind the halo.
the halo. This This combination
combination of forms
of forms creates
creates an impres-
an impression
sion
of of emphasizing
emphasizing the uncreated
the uncreated lightlight of God’s
of God’s energies
energies in thein context
the context of description
of its its description as
as “super-luminous
“super-luminous darkness”,
darkness”, fullyfully in line
in line withwith the growing
the growing power power
of theofHesychasm
the Hesychasm at that at
time (Todorova
that time 2013, 2013,
(Todorova p. 293; p.Todorova 2022a,2022a,
293; Todorova pp. 8–11).
pp. 8–11).
In
In the
thebackground,
background, another
another mandorla
mandorla is depicted,
is depicted, largelarge
and round,
and round,with several bands
with several
of color,ofbut
bands paler
color, butthan thethan
paler mandorla of Christ.
the mandorla ofIn its center
Christ. In itsare depicted
center the openthe
are depicted gatesopen of
heaven, from which the angelic powers come to receive the soul
gates of heaven, from which the angelic powers come to receive the soul of the Virgin. A of the Virgin. A total of
thirteen
total of “balloons” or “alveoli”
thirteen “balloons” or surround
“alveoli”the central composition
surround of the fresco, of
the central composition each
theoffresco,
these
zones
each ofcontaining
these zones one containing
character. Their form is sharpened,
one character. Their form which some researchers
is sharpened, which interpret
some re-
searchers interpret as a visual expression of the speed of their movement—these are the
Religions 2023, 14, 473 9 of 27
Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 27

as a visual expression of the speed of their movement—these are the shining clouds on
shining clouds on which the holy apostles arrive to attend the Dormition of the Theotokos,
which the holy apostles arrive to attend the Dormition of the Theotokos, as described in
as described in the apocryphal sources (Salvador-González 2011, pp. 249–50). In addition
the apocryphal sources (Salvador-González 2011, pp. 249–50). In addition to being used
to being used in the mandorla of Christ, the same star-shaped form is used behind the
in the mandorla of Christ, the same star-shaped form is used behind the Lord’s halo in
Lord’s
the Old halo in the cycle,
Testament Old Testament cycle,
for example, in for
the example,
scene withinthe
theHospitality
scene with oftheAbraham.
HospitalityTheof
Abraham. The mandorla with a dark core and wide symmetrical rectangular
mandorla with a dark core and wide symmetrical rectangular rays emanating from it is also rays ema-
nating from
common. Theitdark
is also common.
core The dark
is also present coredouble
in the is alsomandorla
present in(athe double mandorla
combination of a wide(a
combination
circle of a wide
and a narrow oval)circle
aroundand a narrow
Christ in the oval) around Christ
Transfiguration inDespite
scene. the Transfiguration
the fact that
scene. Despite the fact that the remaining mandorlas in the iconographic
the remaining mandorlas in the iconographic program of the church are mainly program of the
circular
church are mainly circular with several colored bands, the pre-”hesychastic”
with several colored bands, the pre-”hesychastic” type of the symbol already seemed quite type of the
symbol already seemed quite consolidated and ready for widespread
consolidated and ready for widespread use, as we see in many monuments in the next use, as we see in
many monuments
few decades. in the next few decades.

3.4.The
3.4. TheModel
Modelfrom
fromthe
theDormition
DormitionMosaic
Mosaicin
inthe
theChora
ChoraMonastery
Monastery
Thesubsequent
The subsequentdevelopment
developmentof ofthe
thesubject
subjectof ofthetheDormition
Dormitionduring
duringthe
thePalaiologan
Palaiologan
period directly
period directly affected
affected the the mandorla
mandorla symbol,
symbol, whichwhich underwent
underwent aa change
change in in form
form andand
colorand
color andacquired
acquirednew newelements.
elements.One Oneofofthe
themost
mostimportant
importantexamples
examplesfrom fromthis
thisera
eraisisthe
the
mosaic
mosaicfrom
fromthethewestern
westernwall wallofofthe nave
the nave ofofthethe
Chora
Chora Monastery,
Monastery,Istanbul, Turkey,
Istanbul, created
Turkey, cre-
ca. 1315–1321
ated (Figure
ca. 1315–1321 5). Despite
(Figure the current
5). Despite tendency
the current towardstowards
tendency a more detailed narrativenar-
a more detailed of
the subject, the earlier iconographic scheme, limited to one central episode,
rative of the subject, the earlier iconographic scheme, limited to one central episode, was was used in the
Chora.
used inThethetriangular
Chora. The composition
triangular iscomposition
deliberatelyissymmetrical
deliberatelyand based on the
symmetrical andhorizontal
based on
bed of the Holybed
the horizontal Virgin,
of theandHolyitsVirgin,
apex isand located
its apexin aisseraph,
located crowning
in a seraph,Christ’s
crowning mandorla.
Christ’s
The mandorla
mandorla. Theismandorla
double, with a regular
is double, withoval-pointed shape, colored
a regular oval-pointed in grayish
shape, coloredtones. The
in grayish
inner
tones.mandorla
The inneris mandorla
reserved only for the Lord
is reserved only Jesus
for the Christ,
Lordwhile
Jesusthe monochrome
Christ, while theimages
mono-
of four angels
chrome imagesandofonefourseraph
angelsareandarranged in the are
one seraph outer mandorla.
arranged Theouter
in the only colorful
mandorla. objects
The
within
only colorful objects within the mandorla are Christ Himself and the face and haloVirgin.
the mandorla are Christ Himself and the face and halo of the soul of the of the
The
soulcolor
of theofVirgin.
the mandorla
The color casts reflections
of the mandorla on casts
the surrounding objects,
reflections on and those parts
the surrounding objects,of
them that enter
and those partsitsofspace
themlosethattheir
enternormal color
its space and
lose become
their monochrome
normal like the angels
color and become mono-
(Underwood
chrome like the1966, pp. 164–68).
angels (Underwood 1966, pp. 164–68).

Figure5.5.Dormition
Figure Dormitionofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,(detail),
(detail),mosaic,
mosaic, ca.
ca. 1315–1321,
1315–1321, The
The Chora
Chora Monastery,
Monastery, Istanbul,
Istanbul,
Turkey. (Photo credit: the author).
Turkey. (Photo credit: the author).
Religions 2023, 14, 473 10 of 27

S. Makseliene notes that the same pattern was repeated in the Peribleptos Monastery
in Mistra, Greece in the mid-14th century, as well as in the fresco in the St. George Chapel
in the Agiou Pavlou Monastery on Mount Athos, painted in 1423. Virtually the same
iconographic scheme is present in the Athos fresco, containing a complex oval mandorla
with a seraph at the top, a cherub above Christ’s halo, and archangels and angels on
either side of Him. Makseliene associates this Athonite iconography with the sermon of
St. Gregory Palamas, who, in his homily on the Dormition, describes the divine Holy
Liturgy, served at the moment of the Dormition of the Virgin. In addition, the author
makes a reference to Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and his description of the celestial
hierarchy due to his depiction in the iconographic scheme as one of the four bishops, as
well as due to the popularity of his theology during the Palaiologan era (Makseliene 1998,
pp. 51–52, fig. 39). Moreover, although the Dormition mandorla in the Chora lacks the
added “hesychastic” angular forms, the hesychastic understanding of the uncreated light
of God’s energies penetrating matter is clearly visible here. In addition, the iconographic
program of the church includes a fresco of the Virgin with a “hesychastic type” of mandorla,
which demonstrates the current artistic trend (Todorova 2022b). According to researchers,
the mosaic from the Chora Monastery is the earliest example of the monochrome depiction
of angelic forces inside the mandorla—a model that later became particularly popular in
Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia but not in Serbia. Additionally, it is the first time that the
great seraph is seen above the top of the Christ’s mandorla—a pattern that occurs only
once in Serbia, in Lesnovo, but is almost mandatory in all subsequent depictions of the
Dormition in Bulgaria, Athos, and Russia. Thus, the iconographic scheme of the subject
established in the 14th century remained almost unchanged over the centuries, tolerating
only slight variations in some minor elements (Wratislaw-Mitrovic and Okounev 1931,
pp. 169–70).
The Chora mosaic was executed by an outstanding artist, and every detail of the
composition carefully conveys connections not only to the literary sources of the narrative
but also to the theological content, both of the particular sacred event and of various other
related theological themes. The color of the mandorla is of significant importance in this
case. Its greyish-bluish hue visualizes the radiance of the uncreated light of God’s presence.
Even the absence of outlined light beams does not spoil this impression, as the artist used
other methods to depict the brilliance, such as the grayish hues on the lower feathers of
the seraph’s wings, creating the effect of reflections of the light from the mandorla. The
change in the color of the objects partially entering the mandorla also has the effect of
illumination—quite deliberately, the lower part of the seraph’s last pair of wings is depicted
in monochrome where they have entered the outlines of the symbol. The same happens
to the arms, vestments, book, and halo of one of the bishops to the left of the mandorla,
as well as to the halo and vestments of the other to the right. The two angels in the upper
right corner of the scene, who are waiting to take the soul of the Virgin to heaven, are also
depicted in monochrome, except for their heads and halos.
The monochrome depiction of angels in the Chora mosaic is not unprecedented; it was
present as early as the late 6th-century as shown by the Sinai encaustic icon of the Virgin
and Child with St. George and St. Peter where two angels are portrayed in grisaille in the
background (Weitzmann 1976, Figs. B.3.). This painting technique originated from antiquity
and quickly became the dominant way of depicting celestial characters in Christian art,
especially in moments when they were represented as dwelling in heavens. Hence, in
certain iconographical scenes, the angelic powers, the Virgin Mary, etc., are depicted
monochrome (Karahan 2010, pp. 102–6). In the case of the Chora mosaic, the monochrome
images of angels in the mandorla demonstrates in the most direct way possible that the
space inside it is invisible to human sight in the material world.
The elegant white accents on some of the lines of the objects inside the mandorla also
lend it the luminosity it needs, denoting the uncreated light of God’s Glory. This lighting
effect demonstrates the mastery of the artist, who, by placing the white lines only on the
left side of the boundary between the two mandorlas and on the left side of the halos and
Religions 2023, 14, 473 11 of 27

vestments of the figures inscribed within them, creates the impression of a single source of
light illuminating everything from the same position. The same source of light illuminates
the angelic figures above to the right, which is essential to the hypothesis argued here. The
oval mandorla in this mosaic has a pronouncedly spatial character, although at first glance,
it is only discussed in terms of its lighting characteristics. The mandorla indicates a space
that is not of “this” world. It is a topos of the non-material, spiritual space in which God
and His angels reside. The borders of the mandorla outline the invisible in the subject, the
invisible to the material eyes, to the basic human senses. Those characters who inhabit its
space are monochrome and lack the colors of the material world because they do not live in
it. That is why those parts of the objects that are depicted half in the material and half in the
non-material space of the mandorla are colored differently—the uncreated light that evenly
illuminates the celestial space is the true reason for the monochromacy of these elements.
This categorical distinction between the celestial and the terrestrial is also demon-
strated by the way the light sources are positioned in the image. As previously mentioned,
all the figures in the mandorla, plus the two angels in the upper right corner, are depicted
illuminated from the left if we follow the white glares on them. However, only the figures
inhabiting heaven are illuminated by this light source, which remains invisible to the
viewer. If we follow the white glares on the illuminated parts of all other figures and objects
located in the material space, we will see that they are arranged as if illuminated by a
central source of light—He Who stands at the center of the mandorla, the Source of the
uncreated light, shining in the place of His dwelling, penetrating all that exists in the carnal
matter. A theological parallel to this iconographic solution can be seen in the description of
the angels given by St. Gregory of Nazianzus:
“Fixed, almost incapable of changing for the worst, they encircle God, the first cause,
in their dance. . . . He makes them shine with purest brilliance or each with a different
brilliance to match his nature’s rank. So strongly do they bear the shape and imprint
of God’s beauty, that they become in their turn lights, able to give light to others by
transmitting the stream which flows from the primal light of God. As ministers of the
divine will, powerful with inborn and acquired strength, they range over the universe.
They are quickly at hand to all in any place . . . ”. (St. Gregory Nazianzus. Orationes
theologicae. 28.31. On the doctrine of God. In: (Norris et al. 1991, p. 244).)
Thus, St. Gregory of Nazianzus asserts that angels reflect the pure brilliance, the
pure beauty of God; therefore, in iconography they are depicted monochromatically, with
monochrome or golden effects, because they reflect the light of the Prime Source.
Who stands behind the perfection of details in both artistic and theological context?
Who was the author of the mosaic, who made decisions about its composition, who advised
the artist on how to depict the scene of the Dormition of the Theotokos, taking place on
the boundary between two worlds, and managed to do so in a way that truly visualizes
her transition from mortal to eternal life, greeted by her Son and accompanied by angelic
hosts? Without any doubt, the iconographic program of the church was developed with the
active participation of the patron Theodore Metochites—not only the richest but also the
most scholarly person of his time (Ousterhout 2002, pp. 12–14). Certainly, the decoration of
the church started with the mosaics in the nave, even before the construction activities in it
were fully completed (Underwood 1966, p. 15), and the artists were given freedom to work,
clearly evident in their style and interpretation of the scenes. Theodore Metochites himself
explained that the main purpose of the decoration of the church was “to relate, in mosaics and
painting, how the Lord Himself became a mortal man on our behalf ”, but only the mosaic of the
Dormition has survived from the visual narrative in the naos (Ousterhout 2002, pp. 19–21).
It is impossible to know the details that interest us, such as who the authors of the artistic
decoration and the multi-layered theological content were, but models created at the Chora
Monastery spread exceptionally quickly in the Orthodox world.
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3.5.
3.5. Spread
Spread of of the
theModel
Modelfrom
fromthetheChora
ChoraMonastery
Monastery
One
Onedirect
directexample
examplein inthis
thisregard
regardisisthetheDormition
Dormitionfrescofrescofrom
fromthe theChurch
Churchof ofSt.
St.Peter
Peter
in
in Berende,
Berende, Bulgaria
Bulgaria (Figure
(Figure 6),6), from
from thethe 14th
14th century.
century.This Thisisisthe
themost
mostinteresting
interestingscene
scene
from
fromthe thefestive
festivecycle,
cycle,whose
whose most
most distinctive
distinctivefeature is the
feature presence
is the presenceof St.ofJohn Damascene
St. John Dama-
and
sceneSt.and
Cosmas of Maiuma
St. Cosmas on both
of Maiuma onsides
both of theof
sides main core of
the main theof
core composition.
the composition. The twoThe
hymnographers hold scrolls with phrases from hymns in honor
two hymnographers hold scrolls with phrases from hymns in honor of the Annunciation of the Annunciation and
the
andDormition.
the Dormition. ThisThis
feature,
feature,according
accordingto A. Grabar
to A. Grabar andandE.E.Bakalova,
Bakalova,isismainly
mainlyfound
found
in
in the churches in Bulgaria. Although observed in some Byzantine and Serbian frescoes
the churches in Bulgaria. Although observed in some Byzantine and Serbian frescoes
and
and icons,
icons, itit remains
remains aa distinctive
distinctive feature
feature of of the
the Dormition
Dormition iconography
iconography in in Bulgarian
Bulgarian
church
church artart in
inthe
the13th–15th
13th–15th centuries—Boyana
centuries—Boyana (1259 (1259 AD),
AD), Kalotino
Kalotino (14th–15th
(14th–15th centuries).
centuries).
Significantly
Significantly later,
later, from
from the
the 16th
16th toto the
the end
end of of the
the 18th
18th century,
century, thethe two
two saints
saints became
became
mandatory
mandatory components of the iconographic scheme of the subject in the churches
components of the iconographic scheme of the subject in the Athonite Athonite
(Bakalova 1976, pp. 38–42).
churches (Bakalova 1976, pp. 38–42).

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Dormition
Dormition ofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,wall
wallpainting,
painting,14th century,
14th Church
century, of St.
Church of Peter in Berende,
St. Peter Bul-
in Berende,
garia. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
Bulgaria. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).

Themandorla
The mandorlain inBerende
Berendediffers
differsin inshape
shapefrom fromthe theone
onein inChora,
Chora,but butititisisalso
alsodouble
double
anduses
and usesthe
thesame
samecolors.
colors. The
The outer
outer part
part ofof the
the mandorla
mandorla is is round,
round, surrounded
surroundedby by aa thick
thick
light band, and bordered by a thin white line. In its dark, grayish
light band, and bordered by a thin white line. In its dark, grayish core, the monochrome core, the monochrome
paintedfigures
painted figuresofoffour
four angels
angels areare located.
located. WhereWhereparts parts ofangelic
of the the angelic
wingswings
and halosand enter
halos
enter
the thelight
wide wideband,
light band,
they arethey are completely
completely dematerialized
dematerialized and onlyand indicated
only indicated by lines.
by lines. The
The same
same approach
approach is used
is used in the
in the overlapping
overlapping of some
of some elements
elements with
with thelight
the lightband
bandof ofthethe
innermandorla,
inner mandorla, which
which isistriangular
triangular in in shape
shape andand isis reserved
reservedonly onlyforforChrist
Christand andthe
thesoul
soul
ofthe
of theTheotokos,
Theotokos,who whoare arethe
theonly
onlyfull-color
full-colorfigures
figuresin inthe
thefield
fieldof ofthe
themandorla.
mandorla.As Aswithwith
the Chora
the Chora mosaic,
mosaic, the
the light
light rays
rays are
are absent
absent here,
here, but
but the
the white
white glares
glares again
again playplay the
the role
role
of aa reference
of referencepoint
point forforaasingle
singlesource
sourceof oflight
lightfor
forthe
theentire
entirecomposition,
composition,which, which, in inthis
this
case,
case, isisfound
found in
inthethefigure
figureof ofthe
theSonSonof ofGod.
God.Researchers
Researchers note note asas aaspecial
special feature
feature ofofthethe
composition
composition the the turning of Christ to the the left
left (Grabar
(Grabar1928, 1928,p.p.192),
192),pointing
pointingout outthat
thatthis
thisis
isa aloan
loanfrom
fromthe
theWestern
Westernart, art,which
whichisis alsoalso observed
observed in in Staro Nagoričane,
Nagoričane, as well well asas in
in
Matejče,
Matejče,Republic
Republicof ofNorth
NorthMacedonia
Macedonia(Wratislaw-Mitrovic
(Wratislaw-Mitrovicand andOkounev
Okounev1931, 1931,p.p.31).
31).
The
Themodel
modelfrom
fromthe theChora
ChoraChurch
Churchwas wasalsoalso transferred
transferredto to Romania,
Romania, as as evidenced
evidenced by by
the fresco from the Princely Church of Saint Nicholas
the fresco from the Princely Church of Saint Nicholas at Curtea de Argeș. at Curtea de Arges , However, here,
. However, here,
the
theouter
outerpart
partof
ofthethedouble
doublemandorla
mandorlawas wasgreatly
greatlyenlarged
enlargedto toaccommodate
accommodateaamultitude multitude
Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 27
Religions 2023, 14, 473 13 of 27

of angels.
of angels. The The seraph
seraph on on top
top ofof the
the inner
inner mandorla
mandorla falls falls completely
completely within
within the the outline
outline of of
the outer mandorla; however, this does not change its coloring.
the outer mandorla; however, this does not change its coloring. The double mandorla is The double mandorla is
connected vertically to another circular mandorla, in which
connected vertically to another circular mandorla, in which the Virgin ascends to heaven the Virgin ascends to heaven
on aa throne
on throne carried
carried by by angels.
angels. At At the
the top,
top, the
the scene
scene is is crowned
crowned with with aa third
third semicircular
semicircular
monochrome mandorla with four sharp rays of light
monochrome mandorla with four sharp rays of light emanating from it—it depicts emanating from it—it depicts thethe
heavenly realm
heavenly realm into
into which
whichthe theTheotokos
Theotokoswill enter.
will enter. TheThe holy apostles,
holy present
apostles, at the
present atDor-
the
Dormition, are depicted being carried in clouds in the form of alveoli, as is observedthe
mition, are depicted being carried in clouds in the form of alveoli, as is observed in in
Ohrid
the fresco
Ohrid (Figure
fresco (Figure4) (Grecu
4) (Grecu 2011, pp.pp.
2011, 455–56;
455–56;Barbu Barbu 1986, p. 54;
1986, p. Mihail
54; Mihail 1917–1923,
1917–1923, fig.
184).
fig. 184).
AA “hesychastic
“hesychastic type” type” of of mandorla
mandorlaisisemployed
employedininthe theDormition
Dormitionfrom fromthe theGračanica
Gračan-
Monastery,
ica Monastery, Kosovo,
Kosovo, from 1321–1322
from 1321–1322 (Figure 7). The
(Figure 7). church
The church was painted
was painted underunder
the direc-
the
tion of the
direction ofpainters
the paintersMichael and Euthychius
Michael and Euthychius immediately
immediately after after
the completion
the completion of Staroof
Nagoričane.
Staro Nagoričane.Its iconographic
Its iconographic program features
program numerous
features numerous innovations
innovations in thein composi-
the com-
tions, including
positions, includingthe scene of theofDormition
the scene the Dormitionof the ofTheotokos.
the Theotokos. From aFromstylistic point of point
a stylistic view,
researchers believe that the decoration of this church is a true
of view, researchers believe that the decoration of this church is a true synthesis of all synthesis of all the experi-
ence,
the skill, and talent
experience, skill, andof the masters
talent of theof masters
Milutin’sofcourt atelier,
Milutin’s inspired
court by inspired
atelier, the Constantin-
by the
opolitan art of the Palaiologan
Constantinopolitan period (Djuric
art of the Palaiologan 2000,(Djuric
period pp. 150–53). As a150–53).
2000, pp. narrative, Asthe fresco
a narra-
fromthe
tive, Gračanica closely
fresco from resemblesclosely
Gračanica the oneresembles
from Starothe Nagoričane
one from in its comprehensiveness
Staro Nagoričane in its
(Figure 8). The greatest
comprehensiveness (Figure difference is visible
8). The greatest in the is
difference form of the
visible mandorlas
in the form of the in mandor-
the two
las in the two
churches churches (Wratislaw-Mitrovic
(Wratislaw-Mitrovic and Okounev and Okounev
1931, pp. 157–59).1931, pp. 157–59).
While in Staro While in Staro
Nagoričane,
Nagoričane,
we see a double mandorla more modest in size, achieved by combining a circle awith
we see a double mandorla more modest in size, achieved by combining circlea
with a five-pointed
five-pointed geometric geometric
form and form and colored
colored in lightinsilvery
light silvery
tones, tones, in Gračanica,
in Gračanica, the roundthe
round
mandorla mandorla inscribes
inscribes the angelic
the angelic hosthost
andand is combined
is combined witha adouble
with double star-shaped
star-shaped form form
around
aroundChrist,
Christ,obtained
obtainedby byoverlapping
overlappingfour-pointed
four-pointed and and five-pointed
five-pointed geometric
geometric forms.
forms.In
my
In myopinion,
opinion,Wratislaw-Mitrovic
Wratislaw-Mitrovic and Okunev
and Okunevare wrong that thethat
are wrong round
themandorla
round mandorlais missing is
here. It is present but much expanded to encompass the
missing here. It is present but much expanded to encompass the dozens of angels sur- dozens of angels surrounding
Christ,
rounding andChrist,
only itsand dark core
only itsand
dark thecore
thick
and lighter blue lighter
the thick band that blueframes
band itthat areframes
visible.itTheare
apex of the star-shaped form behind Christ interrupts into
visible. The apex of the star-shaped form behind Christ interrupts into the space of the the space of the semicircular
mandorla
semicircular at the top of the
mandorla at scene
the top depicting the open
of the scene gates the
depicting of heaven. Between
open gates the open
of heaven. gates
Between
are
the painted
open gates monochrome
are painted angelic powers awaiting
monochrome the soul
angelic powers of the Virgin
awaiting the soul Mary. TheVirgin
of the color
of the mandorlas is greyish-silver with white splashes and a
Mary. The color of the mandorlas is greyish-silver with white splashes and a dark core of dark core of the “hesychastic
type” mandorla behind
the “hesychastic the figure behind
type” mandorla of Christ.
the figure of Christ.

Figure7.
Figure 7. Dormition
Dormition of
of the
the Theotokos,
Theotokos, ca.
ca. 1321–1322,
1321–1322, Church
Church of
of the
the Holy
Holy Virgin,
Virgin, Gračanica
Gračanica Monastery,
Monastery,
Kosovo. (Photo credit: The Yorck Project).
Kosovo. (Photo credit: The Yorck Project).
Religions 2023,14,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 27
14 27

Figure8.8.Dormition
Figure Dormitionofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,ca.
ca. 1317–1318,
1317–1318,Church
Churchof
ofSt.
St. George,
George,Staro
StaroNagoričane,
Nagoričane,Republic
Republic
ofNorth
of NorthMacedonia.
Macedonia.(Photo
(Photocredit:
credit:Tiffany
TiffanyZiegler).
Ziegler).

4.4.The
TheSymbol
Symbolof ofMandorla
Mandorlain inPost-Byzantine
Post-ByzantineIconography
Iconographyof ofthe
theDormition
Dormitionon on the
the Balkans
Balkans
The
Thechanges
changesin inthe
themandorla
mandorlasymbol,
symbol,caused
causedby bythe
thegeneral
generalinfluence
influenceof ofHesychastic
Hesychastic
theology on preferences towards certain iconographic themes and
theology on preferences towards certain iconographic themes and their interpretation, re- their interpretation,
remained
mained ininBalkanBalkanOrthodox
Orthodoxart arteven
even after
after the
the fall
fall of
of Byzantium.
Byzantium. The The reasons
reasons for
for this
thiswere
were
more
more likely to be purely artistic as there were no suitable conditions for continuingthe
likely to be purely artistic as there were no suitable conditions for continuing the
active theological debate on Hesychasm. The importance of the Dormition of the Theotokos
active theological debate on Hesychasm. The importance of the Dormition of the Theoto-
subject continued to be substantial, and in the post-Byzantine era, a new nuance emerged
kos subject continued to be substantial, and in the post-Byzantine era, a new nuance
as a result of the piety towards the Virgin Mary during the times when Orthodox people fell
emerged as a result of the piety towards the Virgin Mary during the times when Orthodox
under the rule of the Ottomans. Therefore, during this time, in the iconographic programs
people fell under the rule of the Ottomans. Therefore, during this time, in the iconographic
of the churches, a significant space began to be occupied not only by cycles of the Akathist
programs of the churches, a significant space began to be occupied not only by cycles of
hymn but also by other hymnographic images of the Mother of God. New subjects in which
the Akathist hymn but also by other hymnographic images of the Mother of God. New
the Virgin was depicted in glory also appeared, such as the visualization of the Christmas
subjects in which the Virgin was depicted in glory also appeared, such as the visualization
stichera “What shall we offer Thee, O Christ”, “Axion estin (It is truly meet)” and “The
of the Christmas stichera “What shall we offer Thee, O Christ”, “Axion estin (It is truly
Virgin, Lady of the Angels”.
meet)” and “The Virgin, Lady of the Angels”.
Regarding the main Marian subject of the Dormition of the Theotokos, in which
Regarding the main Marian subject of the Dormition of the Theotokos, in which the
the mandorla plays a role not only as a symbolic expression of the Glory of God but
mandorla
also plays element
as a central a role notofonly as a symbolic
the sacred event, itexpression
should beofnotedthe Glory of God
that the main but also asofa
feature
central element of the sacred event, it should be noted that
the symbol—the inclusion of monochrome depicted angelic forces—remains unchanged. the main feature of the sym-
bol—the inclusion of monochrome depicted angelic forces—remains
An interesting change is observed in the color palette and form of the symbol, which unchanged. An in-
takes on a considerably more geometricized appearance, especially in the patterns froma
teresting change is observed in the color palette and form of the symbol, which takes on
considerably
Bulgaria. more geometricized
Systematically speaking, the appearance,
main models especially in the patterns
of the Dormition from Bulgaria.
iconography in the
Systematically era
post-Byzantine speaking, the main
of the Balkans canmodels of thetoDormition
be reduced iconography
three: following in the post-Byz-
the Palaiologan model
antine
from theera of theMonastery
Chora Balkans can be the
with reduced to three:
inscription following the angelic
of monochrome Palaiologan
powersmodelintofrom
the
mandorla; following the earlier iconographic scheme without angelic powers intoman-
the Chora Monastery with the inscription of monochrome angelic powers into the the
dorla; following
mandorla; and using the aearlier iconographic
complicated schemescheme without
that combines angelic
scenes powers
of the into the
Dormition andman-
the
dorla; and using a complicated
Assumption of the Virgin into heaven. scheme that combines scenes of the Dormition and the
Assumption of the Virgin into heaven.
4.1. Following the Palaiologan Model from the Chora Monastery with the Inscription of
Monochrome
4.1. Following Angelic Powers into
the Palaiologan the Mandorla
Model from the Chora Monastery with the Inscription of
Monochrome Angelicfresco
The Dormition Powersfrom
into Church
the Mandorlaof the Holy Cross of Agiasmati, near Platanistasa,
Cyprus, The Dormition fresco from Church of the HolyofCross
dated to 1494, demonstrates the persistence the model from the Chora
of Agiasmati, Monastery
near Platanistasa,
after the fall of Byzantium (Stilianou and Stylianou 1997, pp.
Cyprus, dated to 1494, demonstrates the persistence of the model from the Chora 198–99). The spatial character
Monas-
of theafter
tery mandorla is emphasized
the fall of Byzantium in a(Stilianou
manner similar to the prototype:
and Stylianou 1997, pp. the198–99).
seraph atTheits apex is
spatial
Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27

Religions 2023, 14, 473 15 of 27

character of the mandorla is emphasized in a manner similar to the prototype: the seraph
at its apex is in
monochrome monochrome
the part thatin is the
inside part it, that
whileisthe
inside
tips it,
of while
its wings, the which
tips of areits located
wings, which
in the
material space of the scene, are red; also, the halo of one of the angels on the leftthe
are located in the material space of the scene, are red; also, the halo of one of andangels
the haloon
the left and the halo and wing of one of the angels on the
and wing of one of the angels on the right are depicted in the same way. The iconographic right are depicted in the same
way. Theoficonographic
program the church, createdprogram byof the the church, painter
unknown created Philip
by the“Goul”,unknown painterseveral
contains Philip
“Goul”,
more containswith
mandorlas several more mandorlas
monochrome depicted with angelicmonochrome
powers, evendepicted in a manner angelic powers,
atypical for
even in a manner
Byzantine models. atypical
For example,for Byzantine
in the Nativitymodels. For example,
scene, the double in semicircular
the Nativity mandorla
scene, the
double semicircular
contains two monochrome mandorla contains
angelic two and
figures, monochrome
three sharp angelic figures, and
asymmetrical raysthree sharp
emanate
asymmetrical
from it. rays emanate from it.
Amonochrome
A monochromeangelic angelichosthostis isalsoalso present
present in in
thethe double
double blueblue
ovaloval mandorla
mandorla fromfrom
the
the scene
scene withwith the 16th
the 16th stanza stanza
of theofAkathist
the Akathisthymnhymn in the in the katholikon
katholikon of the of theNeophytos
Saint Saint Neo-
phytos Monastery
Monastery near Paphos,
near Paphos, Cyprus,Cyprus,
from thefrom 16ththe 16th century.
century. The inner Theoval
inneris oval
reservedis reserved
solely
solely
for for on
Christ Christ on His throne,
His throne, while the while
outer theoneouter one is densely
is densely filled with filled with(Ibid.,
angels angelspp. (Ibid., pp.
186–88,
186–88, fig.
190–91, 190–91,107,fig.
pp.107, pp. 372–75,
372–75, fig. 222). fig. 222).
The The
samesamemannermanner of depicting
of depicting angelic
angelic pow-
powers
ers within
within the mandorla
the mandorla is evident
is evident in thein the Dormition
Dormition scenescene
from from the the Church
Church of St.
of St. Archan-
Archangel
gel Michael
Michael or Panagia
or Panagia Theotokos
Theotokos in Galata,
in Galata, Cyprus,
Cyprus, dateddated
to 1514 to 1514
(Figure(Figure 9). The
9). The tips tips
of theof
wings of the
the wings of seraph
the seraph andand angels,
angels, as well
as well as as
a portion
a portion ofof the thehalohaloofofthetheleft
leftangel,
angel,which
which
have
have extended
extended beyond
beyond the the space
space of of the
themandorla,
mandorla, are arebrightly
brightlycolored coloredin inred-orange.
red-orange. A A
similar
similar mandorla is is found
foundininananicon icon ofofthethe Dormition
Dormition from from the the old katholikon
old katholikon of theofHoly
the
Holy Monastery
Monastery of Pantokrator
of Pantokrator on Mounton Mount Athos, Athos,
datingdating
fromfrom the last the quarter
last quarter
of the of16th
the 16th
cen-
century. The seraph on top of the deep blue oval-pointed
tury. The seraph on top of the deep blue oval-pointed mandorla is absent, mandorla is absent, but the four
the four
angels
angelsinside
insideare aredepicted
depictedin ingrisaille,
grisaille,while whileonly
onlythethecandles
candleson onthethecandlesticks
candlesticksthey theyhold
hold
and
and their
their flames
flames are are depicted
depicted in in full
full color.
color. The
The mandorla
mandorla is is filled
filled with
with thin
thin golden
golden raysrays
arranged
arrangedsymmetrically
symmetricallyaround aroundthe thefigure
figureof ofChrist.
Christ.TheTheiconographic
iconographicscheme schemefollows
followsthe the
style
style of Theophanes the Cretan and differs slightly from his Dormition icon from 1546in
of Theophanes the Cretan and differs slightly from his Dormition icon from 1546 in
the
theStavronikita
StavronikitaMonastery
MonasteryMount MountAthos, Athos,showing
showingsimilarities
similarities with withseveral
severalother
otherCretan
Cretan
examples
examplesfrom fromthe thesame
same period
period (Papadopoulos
(Papadopoulos andandKapioldassi-Soteropoulou
Kapioldassi-Soteropoulou 1998,1998,
p. 172,p.
fig. 89).
172, fig. 89).

Figure9.9. Dormition
Figure Dormition of
of the
the Theotokos,
Theotokos, wall
wall painting,
painting, 1514,
1514, The
The Church
Churchof
ofthe
the Archangelos
ArchangelosMichael,
Michael,or
or
Panagia Theotokos, Galata, Cyprus. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
Panagia Theotokos, Galata, Cyprus. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
Religions 2023, 14, 473 16 of 27

An interesting Cretan icon from the late 15th century demonstrates the influences
of Italian art at the time, as the angelic powers inscribed in the wide blue mandorla are
depicted in pink. Another Cretan-style icon from the same period, but from Patmos, Greece,
features an oval double-pointed triple-layered mandorla, in which the angelic powers are
also mainly depicted in reddish tones (Khatzidákis 2004, p. 404, fig. 45; p. 494, fig. 138).
An icon of the Dormition from the second half of the 17th century, created by Ilias Moskos,
follows an established Cretan model based on the model from the Chora Monastery but
with an increased Western influence. The mandorla is a wide oval with monochrome
angelic powers inscribed in it and with a linearly depicted seraph at the top. The alveoli
with the Holy Apostles above the mandorla are missing, replaced by rounded white clouds
from which the winged heads of angels emerge (Akhimástou-Potamiánou 1997, pp. 158–59,
fig. 40). A mandorla with fully colored angelic powers and without a seraph on top of it is
present in a 17th-century Dormition fresco from the Monastery of Seltsou in Piges, Arta,
Greece (Papadopoúlou and Tsiára 2008, pp. 121–23, fig. 17).

4.2. Following the Earlier Iconographic Scheme without Angelic Powers into the Mandorla
Simultaneously with the dominance of the Chora model, the earlier scheme without
angelic powers inscribed in the mandorla continued to circulate, as shown in an icon
from the second half of the 15th century from the Holy and Great Monastery of Vatopedi,
Mount Athos. The blue triple-layered mandorla here is shaped as an elongated rhombus,
connected in its upper part to a blue three-layered semicircle with three rays emanating
from it. Thin, lighter rays are visible within the mandorla, enveloping the figure of Christ.
The holy apostles are depicted, along with angels, in two symmetrical groups of cloud-like
alveoli on both sides of the mandorla. Discussing the shape of the mandorla, researchers
draw parallels with the frescoes from Staro Nagoričane, Gračanica, and the Church of
Taxiarchis Mitropoleos in Kastoria, Greece. The connection of the mandorla with the
semicircle above it resembles the fresco in the Marko’s Monastery near Skopje, Republic
of North Macedonia, from 1366–1371, which depicts the raising of the soul of the Virgin
towards the gates of heaven. In its entirety, the iconographic scheme of the model presents
the eclecticism that was typical of the work of the post-Palaiologan icon painters of the
Cretan school in the mid and late 15th century (Tsigarídas and Lovérdou-Tsigarída 2006,
pp. 237–43, fig. 178).

4.3. Using a Complicated Scheme That Combines Scenes of the Dormition and the Assumption of
the Virgin into Heaven
In the second half of the 15th century, the Cretan iconographic school began using a
complicated scheme for the Dormition subject. It is based on the Chora monastery model
but includes a vertical development of the scene with the addition of a mandorla, in which
the Virgin ascends to heaven, carried by angels and flanked by the holy apostles depicted
in alveoli. A semicircular mandorla with the open gates of heaven, waiting for the Mother
of God, is placed in the upper part. This model settled permanently not only in the art of
the Cretan masters but transited through their influence to Mount Athos and the Balkan
lands. An icon of the Dormition from the mid-17th century, created by an Athonite master
for the Dormition Chapel of the Pantokratoros Monastery, Mount Athos, is an excellent
example of the typical post-Byzantine iconography of the subject, combining the scenes
of the Dormition and the Assumption of the Mother of God into heaven. The closest
parallels to this pattern are an icon from the Monastery of Saint John of Rila, Bulgaria, from
1638–1639, an icon from the so-called “Macedonian school” from the Latsis Collection, and
an icon from the Koutloumousiou Monastery, Mount Athos, from 1657 (Papadopoulos and
Kapioldassi-Soteropoulou 1998, pp. 233–35, fig. 124).
A similar iconographic scheme was used in a Dormition icon from Cappadocia, dating
from the early 18th century. The mandorla of Christ is black, with a double golden frame,
flanked by two angels in the lower part and crowned by a red seraph. Above it, the oval
blue mandorla of the Virgin is depicted, carried upwards to heaven by two angels. The Holy
Religions 2023, 14, 473 17 of 27

Trinity, depicted as the “Throne of Mercy” in a semicircular black mandorla with open gates
of paradise, framed by round red clouds, receives the Virgin (Drandáki 2002, p. 244, fig. 61).
The same composition of the Holy Trinity is present in another 18th-century Dormition icon,
probably originating from Zakynthos, Greece, and preserved in the Velimezis Collection.
The mandorla is dark, with a triple border and filled with thin golden rays, while the
angelic powers inscribed in it are depicted in full color. In its upper end, the symbol is
flanked by monochrome cloud-shaped alveoli, bearing the holy apostles without angels. A
similar large semicircular mandorla with the “Throne of Mercy” is depicted at the top of
the icon, and the Holy Spirit is presented in a separate round red mandorla (Khatzidáki
1997, pp. 388–90, fig. 55).
A combination of the Dormition and the Assumption scenes is depicted in an 18th-
century icon from The Church of the Parigoritissa in Arta, Greece. In the wide oval
mandorla, filled with monochrome angelic powers, only the flames of the candles they
carry are colored. A golden seraph is placed atop the mandorla, above which angels carry
the Virgin on clouds towards heaven. The icon was produced by a local iconographic
workshop that utilized established Cretan models, as evidenced by numerous parallels
(Papadopoúlou and Tsiára 2008, pp. 260–63). By the end of the 17th century, the clouds
permanently settled in the interpretation not only of heaven but also of the mandorla
as a symbol of the Glory of God in the Dormition narrative. An icon from Argostoli,
Kefalonia, Greece, dated to 1698 and preserved in the Collection of M. Cosmetatou, clearly
demonstrates the amplification of these Western influences in the iconographic scheme.
The monochrome mandorla of Christ has clouds at its base from which angelic figures
emerge. The upper pair of angels are outside the mandorla above the seraph, again on
clouds, while the holy apostles are arranged in two large groups, also carried by clouds.
Clouds also enclose the heavenly space with the gates of paradise, in which the Virgin is
depicted in the upper end of the scene (Khatzidákis 1985, fig. 175).

4.4. Examples with Unique Shapes and Color Schemes of the Mandorla
The post-Byzantine models of the Dormition subject in Bulgaria utilize all the three
main iconographic schemes. However, there are also examples with a more distinctive
shape and coloration of the mandorla, which we will focus on.
The Dormition fresco from the Church of St. Demetrius in Boboshevo Monastery, dated
1488 (Figure 10), includes a bright mandorla with inscribed angelic powers (Mincheva and
Angelov 2007, pp. 31–33). G. Subotić finds a close similarity between the iconographic
program of this church and the churches in Leskovec and Lešani, as well as in the stylistic
features of the decoration of the Church of St. Nicholas in Kosel, Republic of North
Macedonia, all made by Ohrid masters (Subotić 1980, pp. 134–41).
The Dormition fresco from the Orlitsa Cloister in Rila, Bulgaria, from 1491, contains
a mandorla with inscribed angelic powers (Figure 11). The symbol is double, with an
oval-pointed form and grayish color, and the angels inside it are depicted in full color. The
mandorla here is intentionally dematerialized, thus, making the Lord Jesus Christ appear
distant from the central scene. This impression is reinforced by the added grieving figures
leaning over the Virgin’s bed. Christ’s mandorla is crowned by a seraph and connected
to the open gates of heaven, held by two angels. The holy apostles are also present, but
the alveoli in which they are usually depicted are of a peculiar shape. The main elements
of the iconographic scheme resemble the composition of the fresco at Marko’s Monastery,
Republic of North Macedonia, and its parallels (Wratislaw-Mitrovic and Okounev 1931,
pl. XV).
Religions 2023,14,
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Figure10.
10. Dormitionofofthethe Theotokos,wall
wallpainting,
painting, 1488,
1488, The
TheChurch
Churchof
ofSt.
St. Demetrius,
Demetrius, Boboshevo,
Boboshevo,
Figure 10. Dormition
Figure Dormition of the Theotokos,
Theotokos, wall painting, 1488, The Church of St. Demetrius, Boboshevo,
Bulgaria.
Bulgaria. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
Yordanov, TerraByzantica).
Bulgaria. (Photo
(Photo credit:
credit: Angel Yordanov, TerraByzantica).

Figure 11. Dormition

Figure 11.
11. Dormition of
of the
the Theotokos,
Theotokos, wall
wall painting,1491,
1491, Churchofofthe
the HolyApostles
Apostles Peterand
and
Figure Dormition of the Theotokos, wall painting,
painting, 1491, Church
Church of theHoly
Holy ApostlesPeter
Peter and
Paul,
Paul, Orlitsa Cloister,
Orlitsa Cloister, Monastery
Monastery of of Saint
Saint John
JohnofofRila,
Rila,Bulgaria.
Bulgaria.(Photo
(Photocredit:
credit:Angel
AngelYordanov,
Yordanov,
Paul, Orlitsa Cloister, Monastery of Saint John of Rila, Bulgaria. (Photo credit: Angel Yordanov,
TerraByzantica).
TerraByzantica).
TerraByzantica).
Angel powers
powers in in Christ’s
Christ’smandorla
mandorla canalso also beseenseen inthethe Dormitionfresco fresco fromthe the
Angel powers in Christ’s mandorla can can also bebe seenin in theDormition
Dormition frescofrom from the
Ascension Church
Church in in Alino
Alino Monastery,
Monastery,Bulgaria,
Bulgaria,dating
dating backtoto1626 1626 (Figure12) 12) (Floreva
Ascension Church in Alino Monastery, Bulgaria, dating back
back to 1626(Figure(Figure 12)(Floreva
(Floreva
1983, pp. 123, 172,172, fig.
fig. 95).
95). The
The scheme
schemefollows
followsthethemodel
modelofofthe theChora
ChoraMonastery,
Monastery,with with
1983, pp. 123, 172, fig. 95). The scheme follows the model of the Chora Monastery, with the
the mandorla being
being oval,
oval, wide,
wide, and
and composed
composed of
of two
two parts.
parts. The
The
mandorla being oval, wide, and composed of two parts. The outer part of the pointed oval outer
outer part
part ofof the
the pointed
pointed
isoval is painted
painted in pale in pale
in pale tones
tones tones with
withwith themonochrome
the monochrome
the monochrome figures
figures
figures ofofthe
of the thefour
four four angels
angels
angels with with
with litcan-
lit lit
candlescan-
in their hands. The middle part of the mandorla is particularly interesting becauseititit
dles in their hands.
hands. The
The middle
middle part
part of
of the
the mandorla
mandorla is
is particularly
particularly interesting
interesting because
because
representsaa vertically
represents verticallyelongated
vertically elongatedred
elongated redrhombus
red rhombuscrowned
rhombus crownedby
crowned byaaared
by redseraph.
red seraph.This
seraph. Thisrhombus
This rhombusisisis
rhombus
reserved only for
for Christ
Christ and
and consists
consists of
of aabright
brightred
red core
core surrounded
surrounded
reserved only for Christ and consists of a bright red core surrounded by a dark red bybya dark
a dark red
redstripe.
stripe.
stripe.
Thin white rays
rays radiate
radiate from
from the
the figure
figure of
ofthe
the Lord,
Lord, and
and some
some
Thin white rays radiate from the figure of the Lord, and some of the mourning figures, of
of the
the mourning
mourning figures,
figures,
over the
leaningover
leaning the bed
thebed
bedof of the
the Virgin,
of the Virgin,cover
Virgin, coverHim
cover Himand
Him andHis
and Hismandorla,
His mandorla,as
mandorla, asin
as inthe
in thefresco
the frescofrom
fresco fromthe
from the
the
Orlitsa Cloister.
Cloister.
Orlitsa Cloister.
Religions 2023,14,
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27

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Dormition
Dormitionofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,wall
wallpainting, 1626,
painting, Ascension
1626, Church,
Ascension Alino
Church, Monastery,
Alino Bul-
Monastery,
garia. (Photo credit: Ivan Vanev, The Roads of the Balkan Painters and Post-Byzantine Artistic
Bulgaria. (Photo credit: Ivan Vanev, The Roads of the Balkan Painters and Post-Byzantine Artistic Her-
itage in Bulgaria
Heritage Project,
in Bulgaria http://zografi.info/,
Project, accessed
http://zografi.info/, on 2 on
accessed February 2023).
2 February 2023).

Accordingto
According toM.
M.Kuyumdzhieva,
Kuyumdzhieva,the themaster
masterof ofthe
thefrescoes
frescoesin inthe
thewestern
westernhalf halfof ofthe
the
church, including the scene under consideration, was the
church, including the scene under consideration, was the same painter (Iovan) Komnov same painter (Iovan) Komnov
whopainted
who paintedthe the
St.St. Petka
Petka Church
Church in Selnik,
in Selnik, Republic
Republic of North of North
MacedoniaMacedonia (Kuyum-
(Kuyumdzhieva
dzhieva
2012, 2012;Although
2020a). Kuyumdzhieva 2020a).
the frescoes Although
in both churchesthe frescoes in both
were created bychurches
the samewere created
painter, the
by the part
central sameofpainter,
Christ’sthe centralin
mandorla part
theof Christ’s mandorla
Dormition scenes in the in the
twoDormition scenesWhile
churches differs. in the
two churches
there differs.inWhile
are similarities there are similarities
the composition, the outerinoval the of
composition,
the mandorla theinouter
Selnikoval of the
is filled
mandorla
with in Selnik
monochrome is filled
angelic with monochrome
powers, and the innerangelic oval haspowers, and the
a traditional inner shape
pointed oval has anda
traditional
color schemepointed
framedshape and color
by a distinct white scheme framed 1994).
band (Mašnik 4
by a distinct white band (Mašnik
1994).
The4
Dormition fresco from the Church of St. Theodor Tyron and St. Theodor Stratilates
The Dormition
in Dobarsko, Bulgaria fresco
(Figurefrom the Church
13), from of St. Theodor
1614, interprets the same Tyron and St.scheme
iconographic Theodor as
Stratilates
in the AlinoinMonastery
Dobarsko,(Kuneva
Bulgaria2012;(Figure 13), from2020).
Kolusheva 1614,Numerous
interprets the same elements
identical iconographic are
schemeinasthe
present in interpretation
the Alino Monastery (Kuneva 2012;
of the scene—the figureKolusheva
of the Virgin 2020). Numerous
Mary, identical
the decoration of
her bed, the arrangement of the figures around it, the placement
elements are present in the interpretation of the scene—the figure of the Virgin Mary, the of the figure of Christ in
the background
decoration of her ofbed,
the bed, and the sameof
the arrangement diamond-shaped
the figures around redit,
element in the mandorla.
the placement of the figureAt
first glance,
of Christ in the
the main difference
background liesbed,
of the in theandabsence
the same of an oval mandorla filled
diamond-shaped with angelic
red element in the
powers
mandorla. around the glance,
At first red rhombus,
the mainbutdifference
the secondlies reading
in theshows
absence that
ofthe mandorla
an oval mandorlais present
filled
in the angelic
with form ofpowers
a triple-layered
around the blueredarc. In other but
rhombus, words,the we
secondalso reading
see a double
shows mandorla here,
that the man-
consisting of a blue oval and a red inner element, but in Dobarsko,
dorla is present in the form of a triple-layered blue arc. In other words, we also see a dou- the oval is transformed
into a semicircle
ble mandorla thatconsisting
here, encompasses of athe
blue angelic powers
oval and a redasinner
in theelement,
Alino fresco,
but inand the angels
Dobarsko, the
themselves are not monochrome but colorful. Thus, the main
oval is transformed into a semicircle that encompasses the angelic powers as in the difference between theAlino
two
scenes
fresco,remains
and thethe absence
angels of a seraph
themselves are at notthe top of the red
monochrome butrhombus
colorful.inThus,
the scene from the
the main dif-
Dobarsko church.the two scenes remains the absence of a seraph at the top of the red rhom-
ference between
The
bus in theclosest parallels
scene from to the Dobarsko
the Dobarsko church. murals were identified in the iconographic
program of the Seslavtsi Monastery, Bulgaria, and recent field studies demonstrate thematic,
stylistic, and epigraphic parallels with the wall paintings from the Church of the Dormition
of the Theotokos in Zervat, Albania. Parallels with the iconographic programs of the
listed churches can also be found in the frescoes of the Church of the Virgin, Slimnitsa
Monastery, Republic of North Macedonia, from 1606/1607, where a large-scale scene of the
Dormition is depicted on the western wall of the nave (Figure 14). Its composition follows
Religions 2023, 14, 473 20 of 27

the traditions of the Palaiologan and Cretan art, showing similarities with the Athonite
examples from the monasteries of Great Lavra, Xenophontos, and Dionysiou (Millet 1927,
p. 132, pl. 1, p. 189, pl. 1, p. 197, pl. 2). The mandorla is double and painted in grisaille,
with angelic powers inscribed in it, but its outer and inner ovals are demarcated by a red
triple stripe, which separates the space around Christ from that of the angels. There is no
space for a seraph at the top of the mandorla, but on both sides of the window above the
mandorla, two cloud-like alveoli in red are depicted, carrying the holy (Popovska-Korobar
2015, p. 225). This type of Dormition mandorla with a red inner oval is also present
Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in Arbanasi, Bulgaria, as well as in many examples created by the iconographers20from of 27
Linotopi and Grammosta, which will be mentioned shortly.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Dormition
Dormitionofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,wall
wallpainting, 1614,
painting, Church
1614, of St.
Church of Theodore Tyron
St. Theodore and St.
Tyron andThe-
St.
odore Stratilates,
Theodore Dobarsko,
Stratilates, Bulgaria.
Dobarsko, (Photo
Bulgaria. (Photocredit:
credit:Ivan
IvanVanev,
Vanev,The
The Roads
Roads of
of the Balkan Painters
the Balkan Painters
and Post-Byzantine Artistic Heritage in Bulgaria Project, http://zografi.info/, accessed on 2 February
and Post-Byzantine Artistic Heritage in Bulgaria Project, http://zografi.info/, accessed on 2 February
2023).
2023).

The
A closestrhomboid
similar parallels to the Dobarsko
mandorla as in murals wereinidentified
the fresco Dobarskoinwas the iconographic
also used in pro-the
gram of thescene
Dormition Seslavtsi
at theMonastery,
Dragalevtsi Bulgaria,
Monastery and of
recent field studiesBulgaria,
the Dormition, demonstratefromthematic,
the 16th
stylistic,Itand
century. wasepigraphic
located onparallels
the westernwithwall,
the wall
along paintings
with thefrom the Church of
Transfiguration of Christ
the Dormi-
and
tion of the Theotokos in Zervat, Albania. Parallels with the iconographic
the Supper at Emmaus. The composition is simple, supplemented only by Jephonias the programs of the
listed churches can also be found in the frescoes of the Church
Jew and the angel, and the mandorla is composed of several color layers (Floreva 1968, of the Virgin, Slimnitsa
Monastery,
pp. 26–27, fig.Republic of North with
42). A mandorla Macedonia, from 1606/1607,
a red rhomboid elementwhere a large-scale
is present scene of
in the Dormition
the Dormition
fresco is depicted
at the Kremikovtsi on the western
Monastery wall ofBulgaria,
of St. George, the navefrom (Figure
1493. 14).
TheItsiconographic
composition
followsfollows
scheme the traditions
the model of the
usedPalaiologan
in the frescoesandinCretan
Dobarsko art, and
showing similarities
the Alino withThe
Monastery. the
Athonite examples
mandorla here is in thefromformtheofmonasteries of Great
a large semicircle, Lavra,byXenophontos,
framed a white stripeand and Dionysiou
including
(Millet
the 1927, p. 132,
fully-colored pl. of
figures 1, p.
two 189, pl. 1,flanking
angels p. 197, Christ,
pl. 2). The mandorla
arranged withinis double and painted
a red rhombus with
in grisaille, with 5
angelic powers inscribed in it, but its outer and
three colored layers. There are many similarities between the iconographic program of the inner ovals are demar-
cated by a red
Kremikovtsi triple stripe,
Monastery and which
that of separates
the Poganovo the space around
Monastery, Christand
Serbia, from that
their of the an-
authorship
gels. There
belongs is no space for
to iconographers a seraph
from at the
the artistic top in
circle of Kastoria
the mandorla,
(Kostur).butTheon Dormition
both sides fresco
of the
window
from the above
Poganovo the mandorla,
Monastery two of cloud-like
St. John the alveoli in red arecreated
Theologian, depicted, carrying
in 1499 the holy
(Figure 15),
(Popovska-Korobar
contains 2015, p. 225).
an oval monochrome This type
mandorla withofinscribed
Dormition mandorla with
monochrome a red
angelic inner and
powers oval
aisred
also present in
geometric Arbanasi,
element Bulgaria,
in the center. as wellisasdepicted
Christ in manyinexamples
front of acreated by theof
combination icono-
two
graphers
red from Linotopi
rhombuses, the first and Grammosta,
of which whichand
is horizontal willthe
be mentioned
one placed shortly.
on it is vertical. Both
A similar rhomboid mandorla as in the fresco in Dobarsko was also used in the Dor-
mition scene at the Dragalevtsi Monastery of the Dormition, Bulgaria, from the 16th cen-
tury. It was located on the western wall, along with the Transfiguration of Christ and the
Supper at Emmaus. The composition is simple, supplemented only by Jephonias the Jew
 Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 27

the Kremikovtsi Monastery and that of the Poganovo Monastery, Serbia, and their author-
shipKremikovtsi
the belongs to iconographers
Monastery andfrom the
that of theartistic
PoganovocircleMonastery,
in KastoriaSerbia,
(Kostur).andThe theirDormition
author-
Religions 2023, 14, 473
ship belongs to iconographers from the artistic circle in Kastoria (Kostur). The 1499
fresco from the Poganovo Monastery of St. John the Theologian, created in (Figure
Dormition
21 of 27
15), contains an oval monochrome mandorla with inscribed monochrome
fresco from the Poganovo Monastery of St. John the Theologian, created in 1499 (Figure angelic powers
and contains
15), a red geometric element in themandorla
an oval monochrome center. Christ is depicted
with inscribed in front of aangelic
monochrome combination
powersof
two ared
and redrhombuses, the firstinofthe
geometric element which
center.is horizontal and theinone
Christ is depicted frontplaced on it is vertical.
of a combination of
rhombuses consist of several color layers, creating a partially visible
two red rhombuses, the first of which is horizontal and the one placed on iteight-pointed
Both rhombuses consist of several color layers, creating a partially eight-pointed
visible red
is vertical.
star-shaped
red star-shaped
Both rhombusesfigure. Along
figure.
consist ofthe
Along vertical
the
several axis,
vertical
color thethe
axis,
layers, monochrome
monochrome
creating mandorla
mandorla
a partially visibleis connected
is connected
eight-pointed to to
a
simple
a simple monochrome
monochrome semicircle
semicircle at
atthe
the top
top of
of the fresco. The
The holy
holy
red star-shaped figure. Along the vertical axis, the monochrome mandorla is connected to apostles
apostles are
are depicted
depicted in
in
atwotwo
simplegroups
groups onon
monochrome both
both sides
sides of of
semicircle thethe mandorla,
mandorla,
at the top ofplaced placed
the inThe
leaf-shaped
in leaf-shaped
fresco. alveoli.
alveoli.
holy apostles Researchers
Researchers
are depicted be-
in
believe that
lievegroups
two the Kastoria
that theonKastoria
both sides iconographers
iconographers
of the mandorla, firmly
firmly based their
basedintheir
placed work on the
work onalveoli.
leaf-shaped Palaiologan
the Palaiologan
Researchers be-models,
but
but added
lieve added new
new
that the elements
elements
Kastoria to
to them
them or
iconographers or further
further developed
firmly based their established
developed on theiconographic
established
work iconographic
Palaiologan models,schemes
schemes
(Kuneva
but added new elements to them or further developed established iconographic schemesof
(Kuneva 2018,
2018, pp.
pp. 26–27).
26–27). Presumably,
Presumably, this
this has
has also
also happened
happened with
with the
the interpretation
interpretation of
the
the Dormition
Dormition subject
subject in
in question,
question, where
where the
the classic
classic Palaiologan
Palaiologan
(Kuneva 2018, pp. 26–27). Presumably, this has also happened with the interpretation of model
model from
from the
the Chora
Chora
Monastery
Monastery
the has
Dormitionhasreceived
received
subject inaaquestion,
new
newexpounding,
expounding,
where the borrowing
borrowing elements
elements
classic Palaiologan typical
typical
model tofrom
the
to thedepiction
Choraof
thedepiction
the Glory of
of the Gloryhas
Monastery God in
of God other
in other
received subjects
a new such
subjects as the Transfiguration
such asborrowing
expounding, the Transfiguration of Christ.
of Christ.
elements typical to the depiction
of the Glory of God in other subjects such as the Transfiguration of Christ.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Dormition
Dormitionofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,wall painting,
wall 1606/1607,
painting, Church
1606/1607, of the
Church ofVirgin, Slimnitsa
the Virgin, Mon-
Slimnitsa
Figure
astery, 14. Dormition
Republic of of the Theotokos,
North Macedonia. wall painting,
(Photo 1606/1607,
credit: Ivan Church
Vanev, The ofRoads
the Virgin,
of Slimnitsa
the Balkan Mon-
Painters
Monastery, Republic of North Macedonia. (Photo credit: Ivan Vanev, The Roads of the Balkan
astery, Republic of North
and Post-Byzantine Macedonia.
Artistic (Photo
HeritageHeritage
in credit:
Bulgaria Ivan http://zografi.info/,
Project, Vanev, The Roads of the Balkan
accessed on 2Painters
February
Painters
and and Post-Byzantine
Post-Byzantine Artistic Artistic
Heritage in in Bulgaria
Bulgaria Project, Project, http://zografi.info/,
http://zografi.info/, accessed onaccessed
2 on 2
February
2023).
February
2023). 2023).

Figure 15.
15. Dormition
Figure 15.
Dormition of
of the
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,wall
wallpainting,
painting,1499,
1499,Poganovo
PoganovoMonastery
MonasteryofofSt.St. John the
John
Theo-
Figure
logian, Dormition
Serbia. (Photo of the Theotokos,
credit: Ivan wall
Vanev, painting,
The Roads of1499,
the Poganovo
Balkan Monastery
Painters and of St.theJohn
Post-Byzantine
Theo-
the
Ar-
logian, Serbia. (Photo credit: Ivan Vanev, The Roads of the Balkan Painters and Post-Byzantine Ar-
Theologian,
tistic Serbia.
Heritage in (Photo
Bulgaria credit:
Project,Ivan Vanev, The Roads
http://zografi.info/, of the
accessed Balkan
on 2 Painters
February and
2023). Post-Byzantine
tistic Heritage in Bulgaria Project, http://zografi.info/, accessed on 2 February 2023).
Artistic Heritage in Bulgaria Project, http://zografi.info/, accessed on 2 February 2023).

A mandorla consisting of a large white semicircle and a red geometric element is

present in the Dormition fresco from the Church of St. Nicholas in the Seslavtsi Monastery,
Bulgaria (Figure 16), from 1616. The semicircle contains full-color angels holding lit candles,
while Christ is depicted in a geometric figure consisting of a horizontally placed red
 Religions 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 27

A mandorla consisting of a large white semicircle and a red geometric element is

Religions 2023, 14, 473 22 of 27
present in the Dormition fresco from the Church of St. Nicholas in the Seslavtsi Monastery,
Bulgaria (Figure 16), from 1616. The semicircle contains full-color angels holding lit can-
dles, while Christ is depicted in a geometric figure consisting of a horizontally placed red
rhombus,
rhombus,framed
framedby byananochre
ochreband, onon
band, which
which is placed a pointed
is placed dark
a pointed red red
dark oval,oval,
framed by a
framed
black band and white line. In front of the Christ’s mandorla are depicted a
by a black band and white line. In front of the Christ’s mandorla are depicted a row ofrow of mourning
figures
mourningleaning over
figures the Virgin’s
leaning bed,
over the thus, making
Virgin’s bed, thus,themaking
Lord Jesus Christ
the Lord appear
Jesus Christdistant
appear in
the background. Researchers believe that the Seslavtsi Monastery, along with
distant in the background. Researchers believe that the Seslavtsi Monastery, along with the Dobarsko
Church, the Zervat
the Dobarsko Church,
Church, and theChurch,
the Zervat Slimnitsa andMonastery, wereMonastery,
the Slimnitsa painted by were
masters from the
painted by
same iconographic atelier, who worked in churches in Northern Macedonia,
masters from the same iconographic atelier, who worked in churches in Northern Mace- Greece, and
Bulgaria in the late
donia, Greece, and16th and early
Bulgaria 17th
in the latecenturies
16th and (Gergova 2012;
early 17th Kuyumdzhieva
centuries (Gergova2020b).
2012;
A despotic icon of the Dormition, painted in 1637–1638 by Konstantinos
Kuyumdzhieva 2020b). A despotic icon of the Dormition, painted in 1637–1638 by Kon- of Linotopi for
the katholikon of the Vellas Monastery in Kalpaki, Ioannina, Greece, contains
stantinos of Linotopi for the katholikon of the Vellas Monastery in Kalpaki, Ioannina, the same
elongated triple-layered
Greece, contains the same rhombus withtriple-layered
elongated a darker core rhombus
in the mandorla
with a of Christcore
darker as used
in thein
the Dobarsko fresco, thus, demonstrating the persistence of the model (Tsámpouras
mandorla of Christ as used in the Dobarsko fresco, thus, demonstrating the persistence of 2013,
fig.
the 585).
model (Tsámpouras 2013, fig. 585).

Figure16.
Figure 16.Dormition
Dormitionofofthe
theTheotokos,
Theotokos,wall
wallpainting,
painting,1616,
1616, Church
Church of of
St.St. Nicholas,
Nicholas, Seslavtsi
Seslavtsi Monas-
Monastery,
tery, Bulgaria. (Photo credit: Ivan Vanev, The Roads of the Balkan Painters and Post-Byzantine
Bulgaria. (Photo credit: Ivan Vanev, The Roads of the Balkan Painters and Post-Byzantine Artistic Ar-
tistic Heritage in Bulgaria Project, http://zografi.info/, accessed on 2 February 2023).
Heritage in Bulgaria Project, http://zografi.info/, accessed on 2 February 2023).

Mandorlascomposed
Mandorlas composedof oftwo
twoelements,
elements,the thecentral
centralofofwhich
whichisisred,
red, are
are often
often present
present in
in the Dormition frescoes from the 17th century, even when not
the Dormition frescoes from the 17th century, even when not featuring a diamond shape or featuring a diamond
ashape or a combination
combination of a diamond of a and
diamond
an oval andbutana oval but a red
red pointed pointed
oval. oval. An
An example inexample
this regardin
isthis
theregard
mandorlais thefrom
mandorla fromof
the fresco thethefresco of the
Church of Church of St. Athanasius
St. Athanasius in Arbanasi, in Arbanasi,
Bulgaria.
ItBulgaria.
consistsItofconsists
a double of apointed
double oval,
pointed theoval,
outerthe outer
layer oflayer
whichof which is grayish
is grayish while while the
the inner
inner one is red. The angels are not inscribed in the oval but are
one is red. The angels are not inscribed in the oval but are fully colored and positioned fully colored and posi-
tioned
in frontin offront
it. Theof red
it. The red
oval, oval,with
filled filled with
thin thinwhite
radial radialrays,
whiteisrays, is reserved
reserved only foronly for
Christ,
Christ, Who is slightly obscured by the figures leaning over the Virgin’s
Who is slightly obscured by the figures leaning over the Virgin’s bed. In the upper part bed. In the upper
part
of theofcomposition,
the composition, the Holy
the Holy Virgin Virgin is depicted
is depicted in aninoval
an oval
grayishgrayish mandorla
mandorla withwith
a red,a
red, vertically
vertically positioned
positioned rhombus
rhombus withwiththreethree
colorcolor
layerslayers below
below it. The
it. The cloudlike
cloudlike alveoli
alveoli of
of the
the holyholy apostles
apostles are depicted
are depicted in grayin and
grayredand red (Gergova
(Gergova and Penkova
and Penkova 2012a). 2012а). The
The scheme
scheme
used used
in the in the frescoes
frescoes of Ioannisof Skoutaris,
Ioannis Skoutaris,
DimitriosDimitrios
(II)6 , and(II)
6, and Georgios from Gram-
Georgios from Grammosta in
mosta
the in the Monastery
Monastery of Prophet of Elijah
Prophet in Elijah
Zitsa, in Zitsa, Ioannina,
Ioannina, Greece in Greece in very
1658 is 1658 similar,
is very similar,
as well
as in those of Skoutaris in the katholikon of the Ravena monastery in Goranxi, Albania.
An oval-pointed mandorla with a red heart also appears in the fresco of Dimitrios (II) and
Georgios from Grammosta in the Church of St. John the Baptist in Polilofos, Ioannina,
from 1672 (Tsámpouras 2013, fig. 170α, β, 213). The Dormition fresco in the homonymous
Religions 2023, 14, 473 23 of 27

monastery in Zervat, Albania, employs the same scheme and contains a wide oval-pointed
mandorla with a monochrome outer oval inscribed with angelic powers, crowned by a
red seraph, and a bright red inner oval framed by a lighter stripe, reserved only for Christ
(Kolusheva 2018). The composition was made by Michael and Nikolaos (III) from Linotopi,
and ten years later Michael used it again in the Dormition church in Elafotopos, Ioannina.
The same scheme is used in 1639 in the Dormition fresco in the Church of St. Nicholas in
Kastoria, by Nikolaos (IV) from Linotopi—the intensely red oval mandorla around Christ
is surrounded by an outer oval with monochrome inscribed angelic powers.
In a fresco by the painter Parvu Parvescu (Parvu the Mute) in the Fundenii Doamnei
church in Bucharest, from 1699, the mandorla of Christ is depicted as a narrow pointed
blue oval combined with an outer pinkish oval containing the figures of two angels, half
hidden behind the blue oval and holding it with their hands. The pink oval has a vertical
connection to a semicircular triple-layered blue mandorla at the top of the scene. The core
of this connection is red, and the traditional seraph is located there (Arteni 2014, p. 63).
The earlier model of the mandorla without inscribed angelic powers was used in the
Dormition fresco in the Church of St. Petka in Vukovo, Bulgaria, from 1598. Here, the
symbol is depicted as a simple white oval without any rays of light, resembling the shape
of the mandorla from Boboshevo. In addition to the white color of the mandorla, a specific
feature of this model is the winged figure of the Virgin’s soul, although it should be noted
that this element has parallels in a series of patterns from the late 13th and the early 14th
centuries. Floreva cites the frescoes from the Peribleptos Church in Ohrid; the Church of
St. Nicholas in Prilep, republic of North Macedonia; the Church of Our Lady of Ljeviš in
Prizren, Kosovo; the monasteries of Vatopedi, Staro Nagoričane, Žiča, and Peć; and the
churches of St. Clement and St. Demetrios in Ohrid. The appearance of this feature, which
has its roots in ancient art, two centuries later in Vukovo, is interpreted by E. Floreva as a
sign of the vitality and stability of the earlier iconographic models (Floreva 1987, pp. 74–75,
fig. 52). A simple greenish oval-pointed mandorla was used in the fresco of the Church of
St. Demetrios in Zvan, Republic of North Macedonia, from 1633–1634 (Tsámpouras 2013,
fig. 41, 170γ, 502). A classical blue multilayered mandorla is present in the Dormition
fresco from the small funerary Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Pefkari, Romania,
dated from the 17th century (Arteni 2014, p. 45).
The use of the third main iconographic model of the Dormition of the Theotokos,
which combines the scenes of the Dormition and the Assumption of the Holy Virgin to
heaven, is seen in the fresco of the Church of St. George in Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria,
dated to 1616. Here, the classical subject is combined with two additional episodes of
the Dormition narrative (Gergova and Penkova 2012b). The mandorla of Christ is blue,
triple-layered, with inscribed colorful angelic powers, and is vertically connected to the
semicircular blue mandorla of the heavens, with the gates of paradise opened by two
angels. In the center of this vertical connection, the red, oval-pointed mandorla of the
sitting Virgin, carried by two angels, is depicted. Thin white rays emanate from the outline
of this mandorla, similar to those emanating from the figure of Christ below. The authors
of the fresco are two icon painters of probable Greek origin, and the style of one of them is
similar to that of the masters who painted the narthex of the Slimnitsa Monastery. Thematic
similarities can be found with the iconographic programs of the Dobarsko Church, Kurilo,
and Seslavtsi Monasteries in Bulgaria.7
This iconographic scheme was also used to depict the Dormition of the Theotokos
in the Church of St. Demetrios in Arbanasi, Bulgaria, in 1621. Christ is presented in an
oval mandorla with inscribed monochrome angelic powers and crowned by a seraph,
above which the Virgin is ascending to heaven in a narrow oval-pointed mandorla, carried
by two angels (Gergova and Penkova 2012c). The same composition was used in the
Dormition fresco from the Monastery of St. Nicholas in Toplica, made by Ioannis from
Grammosta in 1536–1537. The only difference is the shape of the Virgin’s mandorla, as a
star-shaped element with three blue layers was added around the blue oval (Tsámpouras
2013, fig. 17). The Dormition fresco in the Rozhen Monastery, Bulgaria, created in 1727
Religions 2023, 14, 473 24 of 27

by the iconographers Nikola and Teohari, employs a similar composition (Penkova 1992).
Christ’s mandorla is similar to the mandorlas in Boboshevo and Vukovo and is vertically
connected to the elongated oval mandorla in which the standing Virgin ascends to heaven,
while the holy apostles are depicted around her, carried by clouds. The same slightly
oblique oval shape of the mandorla, filled with monochrome angels and crowned with the
narrow oval mandorla of the Virgin, is present in the Dormition fresco painted by Michael
and Konstantinos from Grammosta in the Monastery of Divrovounion, Albania, in 1603
(Tsámpouras 2013, fig. 75). The composition was also used in the Church of the Nativity
of Christ in Arbanasi from the 17th century, where the mandorla is a wide semicircle
inscribed with two angels, above which the Holy Virgin ascends to heaven (Gerov et al.
2012, pp. 91–94).
The diversity of post-Byzantine models of the Dormition subject is infinite. The various
local artistic traditions undoubtedly leave their mark and lead to different interpretations
of both the iconographic scheme and the symbol of the mandorla within it. Wonderful
examples in this regard are the Russian iconography of the subject, which is beyond
the scope of the present study, as well as the heightened Western influence on late post-
Byzantine art, which transforms the mandorla into clouds (Todorova 2020a, pp. 139–40).
However, it is important to emphasize that throughout all stages of the development of
the Dormition iconography, the changes in its visual narrative and the set of symbols it
employs are directly related to the current state of Mariology and devotion to the person of
the Theotokos.

5. Conclusions
In conclusion, it can be inferred that the incorporation of the mandorla symbol into
the iconographic scheme of the subject of the Dormition of the Theotokos is driven by
the desire for detailed depiction of the literary account. First, this level of detail serves
as a means of emphasizing the veracity of the sacred event. Additionally, it serves as an
argument in favor of its dogmatic significance in both Christological and Mariological
aspects. The mandorla is a visual denotation of the descriptions of the wondrous light of
God’s manifestation, accentuating the dichotomous spatiality of the event and addressing
its soteriological importance. Once introduced into the composition, the symbol does not
remain stagnant but dynamically reflects the theological tendencies of the time, such as
incorporating elements that correspond to the Hesychastic understanding of the uncreated
light of God’s glory and participating in the Akathist iconography of the Theotokos.
After the fall of Byzantium, the metropolis that for centuries had disseminated artistic
and theological trends to the periphery of its religious influence disappeared, leading to an
incredible proliferation of models. The iconography of the Theotokos also reflected this
state of affairs through its narrative lines and the morphology of the mandorla within them.
The personal preferences of artists, woven into local artistic traditions and catalyzed by the
socio-historical context, led not only to a new interpretation of the narratives but also to
changes in the narratives themselves. The creation and multiplication of new models must
be sought in the artistic practice of specific groups of masters and in the extent of their
familiarity with classical models, in their sets of copies, and in their authorial choices. This
process was certainly influenced by the trends in the Athonite workshops, which replaced
the missing metropolis as centers for the dissemination of patterns, as well as by the free
movement of iconographers over a larger territory.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Religions 2023, 14, 473 25 of 27

Acknowledgments: Special thanks to Bisserka Penkova (Institute of Art Studies, BAS) for giving me
permission to use the images of wall paintings from a large number of monuments, which she and
her team thoroughly researched while working on the project “The Roads of Balkan Painters and
post-Byzantine Artistic Heritage in Bulgaria”. My heartfelt thanks to Angel Yordanov, author of the
TerraByzantica blog, http://terrabyzantica.blogspot.com (accessed on 2 February 2023), for his help
and support, and for the provided images.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

Notes
1 Dormition of the Virgin (Koimesis), XI (XII?) century. Princeton Work Number 87. Available at: https://bit.ly/3HkFsgo (accessed
on 2 February 2023).
2 See the image in the digital collection of the The J. Paul Getty Museum: https://bit.ly/2VdYcHs (accessed on 2 February 2023).
More info here: (Marinis 2004).
3 Some researchers believe that there were three painters whose names were Astrapas, Michael, and Euthychius. See: (Talbot Rice
1966, pp. 205–6).
4 See more about the St. Petka Church in Selnik here: http://zografi.info/?page_id=298 (accessed on 2 February 2023).
5 See the image here: http://zografi.info/?page_id=243 (accessed on 2 February 2023).
6 The use of numbering (II) was adopted by Tsámpouras in his dissertation to distinguish between painters by the same name. The
same goes for the painters Nikolaos (III) and (IV) mentioned further down.
7 See the image here and some more information about the iconographic program of the church here: http://zografi.info/?page_
id=183 (accessed on 2 February 2023).

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