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Pro Data
Visualization Using
R and JavaScript
Analyze and Visualize Key Data
on the Web
—
Second Edition
—
Tom Barker
Jon Westfall
Pro Data Visualization
Using R and JavaScript
Analyze and Visualize Key Data
on the Web
Second Edition
Tom Barker
Jon Westfall
Pro Data Visualization Using R and JavaScript: Analyze and Visualize Key Data
on the Web
Tom Barker Jon Westfall
Pipersville, PA, USA Cleveland, MS, USA
Chapter 1: Background��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
What Is Data Visualization?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
Time Series Charts������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 4
Bar Charts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4
Histograms������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 5
Data Maps������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
Scatter Plots���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 7
History������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
Modern Landscape���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
Why Data Visualization?�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
Tools�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Languages, Environments, and Libraries������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Analysis Tools������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 17
Process Overview����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
Identify a Problem����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
Gather Data���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
Analyze Data�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24
Visualize Data������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 30
Ethics of Data Visualization��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
Cite Sources�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
Be Aware of Visual Cues�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 32
v
Table of Contents
vi
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271
ix
About the Authors
Tom Barker is the Senior Manager of Web Development
at Comcast. He has authored Pro JavaScript Performance:
Monitoring and Visualization and co-authored Foundation
Website Creation with HTML5, CSS3, and JavaScript. Tom
has also served as an adjunct professor at Philadelphia
University for the last ten years. He lives outside of
Philadelphia with his wife and two children.
xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Matt Wiley leads institutional effectiveness, research,
and assessment at Victoria College, facilitating strategic
and unit planning, data-informed decision making,
and state/regional/federal accountability. As a tenured,
associate professor of mathematics, he won awards in both
mathematics education (California) and student engagement
(Texas). Matt holds degrees in computer science, business,
and pure mathematics from the University of California and
Texas A&M systems.
Outside academia, he has co-authored three books about the popular R
programming language and was managing partner of a statistical consultancy for
almost a decade. His programming experience is with R, SQL, C++, Ruby, Fortran, and
JavaScript.
A programmer, a published author, a mathematician, and a transformational leader,
Matt has always melded his passion for writing with his joy of logical problem solving
and data science. From the boardroom to the classroom, he enjoys finding dynamic ways
to partner with interdisciplinary and diverse teams to make complex ideas and projects
understandable and solvable. Matt enjoys being found online via Twitter at @matt math
or http://mattwiley.org/.
xiii
Acknowledgments
I want to thank Ben Renow-Clarke for thinking of me for this great project. I want to
thank Matthew Moodie and Christine Rickets and the rest of the team at Apress for their
guidance and direction. I want to thank Matt Canning for helping me see the code with
fresh eyes and for keeping me honest.
I want to thank my team at Comcast: every one of you is amazing and I am made
better by being a part of such an incredible team.
I want to thank my amazing wife Lynn and our beautiful children Lukas and Paloma
for their patience and understanding while I would write every night until late in the
night.
—Tom Barker
I’d like to thank my wife and parents for their love and support. I’d also like to thank the
team at Apress for their hard work to help make this project a reality.
—Jon Westfall
xv
CHAPTER 1
Background
When the first edition of this text was released, there was a new concept emerging in
the field of web development: using data visualizations as communication tools. Today,
Infographics are everywhere on the Net; however, this concept is something that was
already well established in other fields and departments for generations. At the company
where you work, your finance department probably uses data visualizations to represent
fiscal information both internally and externally; just take a look at the quarterly
earnings reports for almost any publicly traded company. They are full of charts to show
revenue by quarter, or year over year earnings, or a plethora of other historic financial
data. All are designed to show lots and lots of data points, potentially pages and pages of
data points, in a single easily digestible graphic.
Compare the bar chart in Google’s quarterly earnings report from back in 2007 (ah,
when Google was a “small” company; see Figure 1-1) to a subset of the data it is based on
in tabular format (see Figure 1-2).
1
© Tom Barker, Jon Westfall 2022
T. Barker and J. Westfall, Pro Data Visualization Using R and JavaScript,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7202-2_1
Chapter 1 Background
The bar chart is imminently more readable. We can clearly see by the shape of it
that earnings are up and have been steadily going up each quarter. By the color coding,
we can see the sources of the earnings, and with the annotations, we can see both
the precise numbers that those color coding represent and what the year over year
percentages are.
2
Chapter 1 Background
With the tabular data, you have to read labels on the left, line up the data on the
right with those labels, do your own aggregation and comparison, and draw your own
conclusions. There is a lot more upfront work needed to take in the tabular data, and
there exists the very real possibility of your audience either not understanding the data
(thus creating their own incorrect story around the data) or tuning out completely
because of the sheer amount of work needed to take in the information.
It’s not just the finance department that uses visualizations to communicate dense
amounts of data. Maybe your operations department uses charts to communicate
server uptime, or your customer support department uses graphs to show call volume.
Whatever the case, it’s no wonder that engineering and web development groups have
finally gotten on board with this.
As part of any department, group, or industry, we have a huge amount of relevant
data that is important for us to first be aware of so that we can refine and improve what
we do, but also to communicate out to our stakeholders, to demonstrate our successes or
validate resource needs, or to plan tactical roadmaps for the coming year.
Before we can do this, we need to understand what we are doing. We need to
understand what data visualizations are, a general idea of their history, when to use
them, and how to use them both technically and ethically.
3
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-3. Time series of weighted trend for the keyword “Data Visualization”
from Google Trends
Note that the vertical y-axis shows a sequence of numbers that increment by 20 up to
100. These numbers represent the weighted search volume, where 100 is the peak search
volume for our term. On the horizontal x-axis, we see years going from 2007 to 2012. The
line in the chart represents both axes, the given search volume for each date.
From just this small sample size, we can see that the term has more than tripled
in popularity, from a low of 29 in the beginning of 2007 up to the ceiling of 100 by the
end of 2012.
B
ar Charts
Bar charts show comparisons of data points. See Figure 1-4 for a bar chart that
demonstrates the search volume by country for the keyword “Data Visualization,” the
data for which is also sourced from Google Trends.
4
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-4. Google Trends breakdown of search volume by region for keyword
“Data Visualization”
We can see the names of the countries on the y-axis and the normalized search
volume, from 0 to 100, on the x-axis. Notice, though, that no time measure is given. Does
this chart represent data for a day, a month, or a year?
Also note that we have no context for what the unit of measure is. I highlight
these points not to answer them but to demonstrate the limitations and pitfalls of this
particular chart type. We must always be aware that our audience does not bring the
same experience and context that we bring, so we must strive to make the stories in our
visualizations as self-evident as possible.
Histograms
Histograms are a type of bar chart that displays continuous data on both axes. It is
used to show the distribution of data or how often groups of information appear in
the data. See Figure 1-5 for a histogram that shows how many articles the New York
Times published each year, from 1980 to 2012, that related in some way to the subject of
data visualization. We can see from the chart that the subject has been ramping up in
frequency since 2009.
5
Chapter 1 Background
Data Maps
Data maps are used to show the distribution of information over a spatial region.
Figure 1-6 shows a data map used to demonstrate the interest in the search term “Data
Visualization” broken out by US states.
6
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-6. Data map of US states by interest in “Data Visualization” (data from
Google Trends)
In this example, the states with the darker shades indicate a greater interest in
the search term. (This data also is derived from Google Trends, for which interest is
demonstrated by how frequently the term “Data Visualization” is searched for on
Google.) It’s also worth noting that while darker shades tend to be used to indicate
greater impact, without a legend, we wouldn’t know this for sure.
S
catter Plots
Like bar charts, scatter plots are used to compare data, but specifically to suggest
correlations in the data, or where the data may be dependent or related in some way.
See Figure 1-7, in which we use data from Google Correlate (www.google.com/trends/
correlate), to look for a relationship between search volume for the keyword “What is
Data Visualization” and the keyword “How to Create Data Visualization.”
7
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-7. Scatter plot examining the correlation between search volume for
terms related to “Data Visualization,” “How to Create,” and “What is”
This chart suggests a positive correlation in the data, meaning that as one term
rises in popularity, the other also rises. So what this chart suggests is that as more
people find out about data visualization, more people want to learn how to create data
visualizations.
The important thing to remember about correlation is that it does not suggest a
direct cause—correlation is not causation. Just because two numbers move in the same
direction, does not mean one is causing the other to change. There could always be a
third variable, or coincidence, causing the correlation.
History
If we’re talking about the history of data visualization, the modern conception of data
visualization largely started with William Playfair. William Playfair was, among other
things, an engineer, an accountant, a banker, and an all-around Renaissance man who
8
Chapter 1 Background
single-handedly created the time series chart, the bar chart, and the bubble chart.
Playfair’s charts were published in the late eighteenth century into the early nineteenth
century. He was very aware that his innovations were the first of their kind, at least in
the realm of communicating statistical information, and he spent a good amount of
space in his books describing how to make the mental leap to seeing bars and lines as
representing physical things like money.
Playfair is best known for two of his books: the Commercial and Political Atlas and
the Statistical Breviary. The Commercial and Political Atlas was published in 1786 and
focused on different aspects of economic data from national debt to trade figures and
even military spending. It also featured the first printed time series graph and bar chart.
His Statistical Breviary focused on statistical information around the resources of the
major European countries of the time and introduced the bubble chart.
Playfair had several goals with his charts, among them perhaps stirring controversy,
commenting on the diminishing spending power of the working class, and even
demonstrating the balance of favor in the import and export figures of the British
Empire, but ultimately his most wide-reaching goal was to communicate complex
statistical information in an easily digested, universally understood format.
Note Both books are back in print relatively recently, thanks to Howard Wainer,
Ian Spence, and Cambridge University Press.
Playfair had several contemporaries, including Dr. John Snow, who made my
personal favorite chart: the cholera map. The cholera map is everything an informational
graphic should be: it was simple to read, it was informative, and, most importantly, it
solved a real problem.
The cholera map is a data map that outlined the location of all the diagnosed cases of
cholera in the outbreak of London 1854 (see Figure 1-8). The shaded areas are recorded
deaths from cholera, and the shaded circles on the map are water pumps. From careful
inspection, the recorded deaths seemed to radiate out from the water pump on Broad
Street.
9
Chapter 1 Background
Dr. Snow had the Broad Street water pump closed, and the outbreak ended.
Beautiful, concise, and logical.
Another historically significant information graphic is the Diagram of the Causes of
Mortality in the Army in the East, by Florence Nightingale and William Farr. This chart is
shown in Figure 1-9.
10
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-9. Florence Nightingale and William Farr’s Diagram of the Causes of
Mortality in the Army in the East
Nightingale and Farr created this chart in 1856 to demonstrate the relative number of
preventable deaths and, at a higher level, to improve the sanitary conditions of military
installations. Note that the Nightingale and Farr visualization is a stylized pie chart. Pie
charts are generally a circle representing the entirety of a given data set with slices of the
circle representing percentages of a whole. The usefulness of pie charts is sometimes
debated because it can be argued that it is harder to discern the difference in value
between angles than it is to determine the length of a bar or the placement of a line
against Cartesian coordinates. Nightingale seemingly avoids this pitfall by having not
just the angle of the wedge hold value but by also altering the relative size of the slices so
they eschew the confines of the containing circle and represent relative value. This likely
wins over some of the detractors of pie charts; however, in some circles of science and
academia, there is no such thing as a good pie chart!
All the above examples had specific goals or problems that they were trying to solve.
11
Chapter 1 Background
Note A rich comprehensive history is beyond the scope of this book, but if you
are interested in a thoughtful, incredibly researched analysis, be sure to read
Edward Tufte’s The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.
M
odern Landscape
Data visualization is in the midst of a modern revitalization due in large part to the
proliferation of cheap storage space to store logs and free and open source tools to
analyze and chart the information in these logs.
From a consumption and appreciation perspective, there are websites that are
dedicated to studying and talking about information graphics. There are generalized
sites such as FlowingData that both aggregate and discuss data visualizations from
around the Web, from astrophysics timelines to mock visualizations used on the floor of
Congress.
The mission statement from the FlowingData About page (http://flowingdata.
com/about/) is appropriately the following: “FlowingData explores how designers,
statisticians, and computer scientists use data to understand ourselves better—mainly
through data visualization.”
There are more specialized sites such as quantifiedself.com that are focused on
gathering and visualizing information about oneself. There are even web comics about
data visualization, the quintessential one being xkcd.com, run by Randall Munroe. One
of the most famous and topical visualizations that Randall has created thus far is the
Radiation Dose Chart. We can see the Radiation Dose Chart in Figure 1-10 (it is available
in high resolution here: http://xkcd.com/radiation/).
12
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-10. Radiation Dose Chart, by Randall Munroe. Note that the range
in scale being represented in this visualization as a single block in one chart is
exploded to show an entirely new microcosm of context and information. This
pattern is repeated over and over again to show an incredible depth of information
13
Chapter 1 Background
This chart was created in response to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster of
2011 and sought to clear up misinformation and misunderstanding of comparisons
being made around the disaster. It did this by demonstrating the differences in scale
for the amount of radiation from sources such as other people or a banana up to what a
fatal dose of radiation ultimately would be—how all that compared to spending just ten
minutes near the Chernobyl meltdown.
Over the last quarter of a century, Edward Tufte, author and professor emeritus at
Yale University, has been working to raise the bar of information graphics. He published
groundbreaking books detailing the history of data visualization, tracing its roots even
further back than Playfair to the beginnings of cartography. Among his principles is
the idea to maximize the amount of information included in each graphic—both by
increasing the amount of variables or data points in a chart and by eliminating the use
of what he has coined chartjunk. Chartjunk, according to Tufte, is anything included in a
graph that is not information, including ornamentation or thick, gaudy arrows.
Tufte also invented the sparkline, a time series chart with all axes removed and only
the trend line remaining to show historic variations of a data point without concern for
exact context. Sparklines are intended to be small enough to place in line with a body
of text, similar in size to the surrounding characters, and to show the recent or historic
trend of whatever the context of the text is.
14
Chapter 1 Background
Among other things, we see IP address, date, requested resource, and client user
agent. Now imagine this repeated thousands of times—so many times that your eyes
kind of glaze over because each line so closely resembles the ones around it that it’s hard
to discern where each line ends, let alone what cumulative trends exist within.
By using some analysis and visualization tools such as R, or even a commercial
product such as Splunk, we can artfully pull out all kinds of meaningful and interesting
stories out of this log, from how often certain HTTP errors occur and for which resources
to what our most widely used URLs are, to what the geographic distribution of our user
base is.
This is just our Apache access log. Imagine casting a wider net, pulling in release
information, bugs, and production incidents. What insights we could gather about what
we do: from how our velocity impacts our defect density to how our bugs are distributed
across our feature sets. And what better way to communicate those findings and tell
those stories than through a universally digestible medium, like data visualizations?
The point of this book is to explore how we as developers can leverage this practice
and medium as part of continual improvement—both to identify and quantify our
successes and opportunities for improvements and more effectively communicate our
learning and our progress.
T ools
There are a number of excellent tools, environments, and libraries that we can use both
to analyze and visualize our data. The next two sections describe them.
15
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-11. Google Trends analysis of interest over time in Splunk, R, and D3
From the figure, we can see that R has had a steady consistent amount of interest
since 200; Splunk had an introduction to the chart around 2005, had a spike of interest
around 2006, and had steady growth since then, which only started tapering off in
2019. As for D3, we see it just start to peak around 2011 when it was introduced and its
predecessor Protovis was sunsetted. R and D3 have remained relatively stable in interest
in the years since 2013.
Let’s start with the tool of choice for many developers, scientists, and statisticians:
the R language. We have a deep dive into the R environment and language in the next
chapter, but for now, it’s enough to know that it is an open source environment and
language used for statistical analysis and graphical display. It is powerful, fun to use,
and, best of all, it is free.
Splunk has seen a tremendous steady growth in interest over the last few years—and
for good reason. It is easy to use once it’s set up, scales wonderfully, supports multiple
concurrent users, and puts data reporting at the fingertips of everyone. You simply set it
up to consume your log files; then you can go into the Splunk dashboard and run reports
on key values within those logs. Splunk creates visualizations as part of its reporting
capabilities, as well as alerting. While Splunk is a commercial product, it also offers a free
trial version, available here: www.splunk.com/download.
D3 is a JavaScript library that allows us to craft interactive visualizations. It is the
official follow-up to Protovis. Protovis was a JavaScript library created in 2009 by Stanford
University’s Stanford Visualization Group. Protovis was sunsetted in 2011, and the
creators unveiled D3. We explore the D3 library at length in Chapter 4.
16
Chapter 1 Background
A
nalysis Tools
Aside from the previously mentioned languages and environments, there are a number
of analysis tools available online.
A great hosted tool for analysis and research is Google Trends. Google Trends
allows you to compare trends on search terms. It provides all kinds of great statistical
information around those trends, including comparing their relative search volume (see
Figure 1-12), the geographic area those trends are coming from (see Figure 1-13), and
related keywords.
Figure 1-12. Google Trends for the terms “data scientist” and “computer scientist”
over time; note the interest in the term “data scientist” growing rapidly from 2011
on to match the interest in the term “computer scientist”
17
Chapter 1 Background
Figure 1-13. Google Trends data map showing geographic location where interest
in the keywords is originating
18
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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OLAUS (Suomelalle:)
KIRSTI
SUOMELA
(Kirstille imelästi:)
Maammonen, maammonen mansikoilta
maistuvainen heinillä herskuu, nurmella nurskuu,
tinasolkiloissa, sulkkukauhtanoissa, kultarenkahissa,
punasormuksissa.
KIRSTI
(Nauraa.)
(Ritari Kovasydämelle:)
KARPALANUS
KAARINA
KIRSTI
(Vihasta punaisena:)
KAARINA
OLAUS H.
ROUVA
OLAUS H.
OLAUS (nauraa.)
Runoilijaks Max käy aina päissään!
ROUVA
RITARI SUOMELA
NAISET KUOROSSA
Piru!
SUOMELA
KANIIKKI HORDINCH
NAISET
KAN. HORDINCH
Muutahan siin' ei oo kertomista.
NAISET
ROUVA
KAARINA
OLAUS
KAN. HORDINCH
HENNEKIN
KARPALANUS
HENNEKIN
SUOMELA
KAARINA
KAARINA
NAISET
KAARINA
Miten kävi! Lesti lensi vatsaan sekä siitä selän kautta ulos.
lentäin läpi sen kuin ilman läpi. Irvistäen oli suutarille
nauranut se kädet vatsallansa lausuellen: "Heitäs toinen
lesti!"
(Nauraa.)
HENNEKIN
(Vierailleen.)
KAARINA
HENNEKIN
(Yliantilaalle:)
MUNKKI
MUNKKI
KAARINA
KAARINA
Shakin peluuseen lie tästä mennyt
toisten herrain kanssa huoneeseensa. —
Menkää, menkää! Löydättehän sinne.
Siell' on Paavalikin sekä vielä
Jacob Hordinch ynnä Karpalanus…
MUNKKI (menee.)
SUOMELA (Kaarinalle.)
(Polvistuu.)
SUOMELA
KAARINA
SUOMELA
KAARINA
SUOMELA
KAARINA
SUOMELA (nousee.)
PALVELIJA (tulee.)
KAARINA (palvelijalle.)
PALVELIJA (menee.)
OLAUS (tulee.)
OLAUS
SUOMELA
(Paljastaa miekkansa.)
KAARINA (väliin)
Pyydän, ettei verta vuodateta!
SUOMELA
KAARINA
SUOMELA
OLAUS (päättävästi,)
SUOMELA