Education

Weaving Traditional
Ecological Knowledge

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into Biological Education:
A Call to Action
ROBIN WALL KIMMERER

A s scientists and educators, we train our students

to thoroughly examine all the available evidence and to
consider alternative explanations for biological phenomena.
on Biodiversity calls for recognition, protection, and utiliza-
tion of TEK. Researchers in pharmaceutical laboratories and
in agricultural experiment stations worldwide are beginning
In peer review, we critically assess whether the author has care- to recognize the knowledge of indigenous peoples in scien-
fully cited the appropriate primary sources. And yet, in our tific research. New directions in applied biology that have di-
biology curricula, we are perhaps unknowingly ignoring an rect parallels and precedents in traditional knowledge in-
entire body of knowledge that has potential significance to clude ecosystem management, medicine, pharmacology,
contemporary science and policy: traditional ecological agroecology, wildlife, fisheries, and animal behavior. Biolog-
knowledge (TEK). ical research is moving to explore these approaches, yet ac-
Indigenous peoples are the stewards of fully 4 percent of knowledgment or understanding of traditional ecological
the land area of the United States and represent some 700 dis- knowledge is rare in the scientific community. Most college
tinct communities possessing detailed knowledge of the biota ecology courses begin a history of the discipline with 19th-
of their homelands. Native American land holdings in North century Europe, neglecting the highly sophisticated precedents
America collectively contain more wildlands than all of the in indigenous knowledge systems. My goal in this article is to
national parks and nature conservancy areas in North Amer- present the case that exposure to TEK has a legitimate role in
ica (Nabhan 2000). Globally, indigenous peoples inhabit ar- the education of the next generation of biologists, environ-
eas with some of the highest remaining biodiversity on the mental scientists, and natural resource managers. Traditional
planet (Durning 1992) and are actively engaged as partners ecological knowledge has value not only for the wealth of bi-
in biodiversity conservation (Weber et al. 2000). Issues of sus- ological information it contains but for the cultural frame-
tainable development, resource management, and ecological work of respect, reciprocity, and responsibility in which it is
restoration all include Native American stakeholders. Federal embedded (Kimmerer 1998, Pierotti and Wildcat 2000).
agencies are required to consult with tribes on a govern-
ment-to-government basis on a host of scientific and natural What is traditional
resource policies. Thus, college biology graduates have a high ecological knowledge?
probability of encountering issues involving indigenous cul- Traditional ecological knowledge refers to the knowledge,
tures and TEK. However, the majority of scientific profes- practice, and belief concerning the relationship of living be-
sionals and educators have little understanding of the value ings to one another and to the physical environment, which
of TEK or its cultural context.
Traditional ecological knowledge is increasingly being
sought by academics, agency scientists, and policymakers as Robin Wall Kimmerer (Citizen Potawatomi) (e-mail: [email protected]),
a potential source of ideas for emerging models of ecosystem a plant ecologist, is an associate professor of environmental and for-
management, conservation biology, and ecological restoration. est biology at the College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State
It has been recognized as complementary and equivalent to University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210. She has an active re-
scientific knowledge (Colorado and Collins 1987, Corsiglia search program in the ecology and restoration of plants of cultural
and Snively 1995, Salmon 1996, Richards 1997, UNEP 1998, significance to native peoples. © 2002 American Institute of Biological
Berkes et al. 2000). Indeed, the United Nations Convention Sciences.

432 BioScience • May 2002 / Vol. 52 No. 5

 Education

is held by peoples in relatively nontechnological societies with

a direct dependence upon local resources (Berkes 1993). Tra-
ditional ecological knowledge is not unique to Native Amer-
ican culture but exists all over the world, independent of eth-
nicity. It is born of long intimacy and attentiveness to a
homeland and can arise wherever people are materially and
spiritually integrated with their landscape (Kimmerer 2000).

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TEK is rational and reliable knowledge that has been devel-
oped through generations of intimate contact by native peo-
ples with their lands (Mauro and Hardison 2000). TEK is be-
ing recognized as having equal status with scientific knowledge
(UNEP 1998) and has been termed the “intellectual twin to
science” (DeLoria 1995). This long intellectual tradition exists
in parallel to Western science, yet has been historically mar-
ginalized by the scientific community (Salmon 1996).
Traditional knowledge has much in common with scientific
ecological knowledge (SEK), which is not surprising since
both traditions derive from the same source: systematic ob-
servations of nature. Both knowledge systems yield detailed em-
pirical information of natural phenomena and relationships
among ecosystem components. Both SEK and TEK have pre-
dictive power, and in both intellectual traditions, observa-
tions are interpreted within a particular cultural context.
Traditional knowledge encompasses a wide range of bio-
logical information, which overlaps significantly with the
content of a mainstream course in ecology or conservation
biology. The scope of traditional ecological knowledge includes
detailed empirical knowledge of population biology, resource The amazing red corn is Tarahumara maiz rojo.
assessment and monitoring, successional dynamics, patterns Photograph: Native Seeds/SEARCH, Tucson.
of fluctuation in climate and resources, species interactions,
ethnotaxonomy, sustainable harvesting, and adaptive man-
agement and manipulation of disturbance regimes (Berkes
1999). Case histories of the utility of TEK in conservation bi-
ology span a range of biomes from the tundra to the tropi-
cal rainforest (Williams and Baines 1993, Berkes et al 1995,
Fernandez-Gimenez 2000, Gadgil et al 2000). Should not
our students learn to access and evaluate this valuable source
of long-term ecological information?
Traditional ecological knowledge differs from scientific
ecological knowledge in a number of important ways. TEK
observations tend to be qualitative, and they create a dia-
chronic database, that is, a record of observations from a
single locale over a long time period. The National Science
Foundation, in its support of the Long-Term Ecological Re-
search program, has validated the importance of such con-
tinuous data. In TEK, the observers tend to be the resource
users themselves, for example, hunters, fishers, and gatherers
whose harvesting success is inextricably linked to the quality
and reliability of their ecological observations. In contrast, sci-
entific observations made by a small group of professionals
tend to be quantitative and often represent synchronic data
or simultaneous observations from a wide range of sites, Some of 60 different chili varieties richly diverse in color,
which frequently lack the long-term perspective of TEK. Ad- shape, size, and heat grown at the Conservation Farm in
ditional differences between scientific knowledge and tradi- Patagonia, Arizona. Photograph: Native Seeds/SEARCH,
tional knowledge are described in Berkes (1993). Tucson.

May 2002 / Vol. 52 No. 5 • BioScience 433

Education

Western science is conducted in an academic culture in Traditional ecological knowledge can be a source
which nature is viewed strictly objectively. In this aspect, of new biological insights and potential models
TEK diverges significantly from Western science (Pierotti for conservation biology and sustainable develop-
and Wildcat 2000). TEK is much more than the empirical in- ment. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) recognizes the
formation concerning ecological relationships. Unlike SEK, practical significance of TEK to contemporary sciences such
traditional knowledge is woven into and is inseparable from as ecology, conservation biology, pharmaceutical botany,
the social and spiritual context of the culture. Traditional forestry, and fish and wildlife sciences. An IUCN report (IUCN

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knowledge can rival Western science as a body of empirical 1986) lists the following arenas in which TEK can prove use-
information, but traditional knowledge may also extend its ful to science and environmental applications: new biological
explanatory power beyond the strictly empirical, where sci- insights, resource management, conservation education, reserve
ence cannot go. TEK is laden with associated values, while the design and management, development planning, environ-
scientific community prides itself on data that are “value mental assessment, and commodity development. TEK also
free.” TEK includes an ethic of reciprocal respect and oblig- has strong potential for informing the science of ecological
ations between humans and the nonhuman world. In in- restoration (Martinez 1994, Kimmerer 2000). Ford (2001)
digenous science, nature is subject, not object. Such holistic suggests that TEK plays a vital role in ecological monitoring
ways of understanding the environment offer alternatives to by providing early warning signs of ecosystem change.
the dominant consumptive values of Western societies (Berkes Traditional ecological knowledge is not restricted to the bi-
1999, Hunn 1999). Embraced as an equal partner to the ology of subsistence activities but includes detailed observa-
power of Western science, TEK offers not only important bi- tions of population ecology and species interactions, which
ological insights but a cultural framework for environmen- arise from long-term association with a particular flora and
tal problem solving that incorporates human values. fauna. These kinds of observations can be extremely valuable
Gadgil and colleagues (1993, p. 151) wrote, “Modern sci- in validating scientific hypotheses and suggesting new re-
entific knowledge, with its accompanying worldview of hu- search directions. For example, Nakashima (1993) compares
the extent of information about Hudson Bay eider collected
man beings apart from and above the natural world, has
by wildlife biologists with the traditional knowledge of eider
been extraordinarily successful in furthering human under-
gathered by Inuit hunters. The Inuit knowledge had been dis-
standing and manipulation of simpler systems. However,
missed as unreliable “Eskimo reports.” After interviews with
neither this worldview nor scientific knowledge has been
Inuit hunters, it became apparent that the knowledge of Inuit
particularly successful when confronted with complex eco-
hunters far exceeded that of the wildlife biologists. Tradi-
logical systems.... It is in this context that traditional ecolog-
tional knowledge of the Inuit contained information new to
ical knowledge is of significance.”
science on range, winter behavior, mortality, and demogra-
phy of the eider. TEK has been shown to provide accurate and
Why include traditional ecological reliable species information, and therefore effective man-
knowledge in biological education? agement, in a growing number of cases, including fisheries
A basic tenet of biology is that diversity is the raw material of (Berkes 1977), caribou age structure (Mander 1991), census
evolution. Without adequate diversity, adaptation to chang- of bowhead whales (Huntington et al. 1999), forest fungi
ing environments is not possible, and extinction ensues. Sim- (Richards 1997), wolves (Stephenson 1982), and food plants
ilarly, intellectual diversity fuels the evolution of cultures and (Anderson 1996, Turner et al. 2000).
their ability to adapt to a changing world. The adoption of a Knowledge of species interactions may be documented in
single mode of thinking based on a materialistic view of na- sources unfamiliar to scientists, but valid nonetheless. Nabhan
ture has contributed to serious environmental degradation. (1997) presents a translation of an ancient O’Odham song,
The complex issues of environmental sustainability require which describes, in detail, the behavior of a hawk moth feed-
a diversity of intellectual approaches and can benefit from a ing on Datura metaloides. Centuries after its first description,
thoughtful consideration and incorporation of traditional eco- this same interaction was analyzed by professional biologists
logical knowledge. (Grant and Grant 1965), who were perhaps unaware of the
Traditional knowledge represents an intellectual tradition precedent in the oral tradition. Indigenous languages can en-
of generating, validating, and interpreting information about code significant information concerning species interactions.
relationships in the natural world. As such, it is of intrinsic Nabhan (2000) suggests that biological information embed-
value to scientists. However, this extensive body of knowledge ded in indigenous languages may be valuable in conservation
has great applied value as well. An extensive review of the ap- biology. Songs, poems, and stories that exist in the oral tradi-
plications of TEK is beyond the scope of this paper. The re- tion may be of great value in validating and expanding scientific
cent collections by Berkes (1999) and Ford and Martinez understanding. The scientific richness of the oral tradition
(2000) provide an excellent introduction. However, the fol- forces scientists to confront assumptions concerning the va-
lowing overview offers a glimpse of the depth and breadth of lidity of this traditional information, which has typically been
TEK and how it may be incorporated productively into West- marginalized by scientists. The wealth of ecological informa-
ern science education. tion in native languages, many of which are nearly extinct,

434 BioScience • May 2002 / Vol. 52 No. 5

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supports the link between conservation of biodiversity and con- Incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge
servation of cultural diversity (Maffi 1999). into the curriculum can increase the participation
Exploration of traditional ecological knowledge offers not of Native American students and practitioners in
only a host of new biological insights but also opportunities the scientific community. Native Americans are the
for cross-validation of scientific hypotheses. Indigenous ob- most underrepresented group in the American scientific
servations can offer concrete evidence for contemporary in- community and are “barely a presence in science,” according
terpretations of patterns in nature. Deloria (1995) docu- to a report of the National Science Foundation (Levy 1992).

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ments that the oral tradition of many tribes contains accurate A 1991 study found a “consistent and nearly complete absence
information on past geologic events, such as floods, tsunamis, of American Indian faculty members in science and engi-
and earthquakes, that can validate contemporary hypotheses. neering” (Levy 1992). Native American students encounter se-
There are well-documented instances where TEK offers sig- rious challenges in the alien culture of a mainstream acade-
nificant predictions of natural patterns well in advance of sci- mic community. In many cases, the culture of science is
entific explanations, for example, the prediction of El Niño perceived as unwelcoming, exclusionary, and hostile to tra-
events by Andean peoples (Orlove et al. 2000). ditional ways of knowing. Scholars of Native American ed-
ucation emphasize that educational programs must resonate
Examination of traditional ecological knowledge with cultural values (Cajete 1994). Incorporation of TEK
explicitly brings multicultural perspectives into the into science curricula not only broadens the horizons of stu-
core of the science curriculum, where they have dents from the dominant culture but also can validate and en-
generally been absent. As educators have come to un- courage the inclusion of native students.
derstand the growing importance of cultural diversity in
academia, development of cross-cultural competence is be- Traditional ecological knowledge integrates sci-
ing integrated into university curricula all over the country. entific and cultural concerns in a holistic manner.
In general, such integration takes place outside the mainstream In a commentary on scientific education, Aldo Leopold
science curriculum, usually in the humanities and social sci- lamented the division between training in science and the hu-
ences. The lack of integration of cross-cultural competence manities (Kessler and Booth 1998). He argued that both were
with science implies to our students that cross-cultural per- essential as guides to environmental conservation. Complex
spectives have little application to the sciences. Exposure to scientific questions benefit from a diversity of problem-solv-
traditional knowledge in biology classes offers an opportu- ing approaches, and traditional reductionist science often
nity to bring much-needed multicultural perspectives di- falls short in explaining dynamic, multidimensional systems
rectly into the science curriculum. As educators, it is our re- and human interactions with nature (Bekoff 2000). The need
sponsibility to prepare ourselves and our students to for integrative thinking was pointed out in the plenary ses-
participate productively in a complex, multicultural scientific sion of the year 2000 meeting of the American Institute of Bi-
community. ological Sciences, in which eight of America’s most prominent
Western science also takes place in a cultural context, of biologists identified the challenges that lie ahead for science.
which students and practitioners of science are often un- Nearly all the presenters identified the integration of social and
aware. The exercise of examining environmental relations from cultural concerns as a major new direction for scientists. Ed-
a cross-cultural perspective not only deepens awareness of an- ward O. Wilson noted that the widely perceived “fault line”
other culture but also provides mainstream students with in- between natural sciences and humanities is, in fact, no divi-
sights into the cultural assumptions underlying their own in- sion at all, “just a broad domain of poorly understood ma-
tellectual tradition of Western science and technology. terial phenomena awaiting cooperative investigation from
both sides” (Ben-Ari 2000). In order to make science more at-
Recognition of traditional ecological knowledge in- tractive to students and to increase our success in analyzing
creases opportunities for productive partnerships complex systems, Bekoff (2000) calls for “holistic, heart-
between Western scientists and indigenous people. driven” science that is “impregnated with spirit and com-
Understanding of traditional knowledge can foster creative passion” and “acknowledges the full spectrum of human–
collaborations between indigenous and local peoples and nature interrelationships.”
tribal governments and Western environmental scientists, Traditional ecological knowledge, as an intellectual part-
nongovernment organizations (Weber et al. 2000), policy- ner to Western science, offers a model for just such integra-
makers, and natural resource managers. Many case histories tion. In indigenous epistemology, a thing is understood only
document such cooperation, such as the biocultural restora- when it is understood with all aspects of human experience,
tion work of the Indigenous Peoples Restoration Network, the that is, the mind, body, emotion, and spirit (Cajete 1994).
Intertribal Bison Cooperative, wolf restoration in Nez Perce Western scientific education gives privileged status to objec-
territory (Robbins 1997), and Peoples Biodiversity Registers tive information only and specifically excludes emotional
Program (Gadgil et al. 2000). Nabhan (2000) proposes part- and spiritual dimensions. Traditional knowledge recognizes
nerships with indigenous peoples to integrate their extensive the different strengths of multiple understandings and ex-
knowledge bases for endangered species recovery efforts. plicitly incorporates the cultural experience of the observer

May 2002 / Vol. 52 No. 5 • BioScience 435

Education

into interpretation of the natural world. TEK is highly ratio- I designed a laboratory exercise for general botany that takes
nal, empirical, and pragmatic, while simultaneously inte- place in a Three Sisters garden planted for the class’s use.
grating cultural values and moral perspectives. With its world- The traditional Iroquois polyculture of corn, beans, and
view of respect, responsibility, and reciprocity with nature, TEK squash—the Three Sisters—provides an opportunity for stu-
does not compete with science or detract from its power but dents to learn basic botanical and ecological concepts in the
extends the scope of science into human interactions with the context of a sophisticated agricultural system developed by
natural world. the indigenous people of our region. Students compare yields

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of monoculture and polyculture plots, learn comparative
How can traditional ecological plant morphology, concepts of symbiosis, nutrient cycling, and
knowledge be incorporated into niche partitioning in the traditional garden. The garden
mainstream biology education? serves as the manifestation of TEK and provides an oppor-
There are various approaches by which traditional knowl- tunity to learn plant science in a cross-cultural context.
edge can be incorporated into mainstream science teaching, Tribal colleges can lead the way in integrating traditional
as exemplified by the small but growing number of course of- ecological knowledge and scientific ecological knowledge.
ferings at universities and tribal colleges. Approaches include Tribal college faculty should be engaged as partners in an ef-
entire courses dedicated to TEK, individual exercises in lab and fort to design courses that incorporate TEK into university
classroom, or incorporation of examples into the lecture ma- courses. For example, at Salish Kootenai College (SKC),
terials of existing courses, such as general biology and ecology. Haskell Indian Nations University, Dine College, and other col-
University courses with an anthropological focus may in- leges, students routinely consider traditional knowledge in par-
clude traditional ecological knowledge and can be valuable in allel with mainstream scientific knowledge. For example, in
interpreting the cultural context of TEK. However, the num- systematics lectures at SKC, an array of alternative taxonomic
ber of science majors in such classes is generally low. Thus, if systems are presented for analysis by the class. Indigenous plant
biology students are to be exposed to TEK, it should be in the names are often descriptive of associated ecological interac-
context of their training as scientists, rather than a peripheral, tions and offer valid alternative ways of categorizing biodi-
elective offering. versity. Students can compare the origins and utility of the Lin-
There are several good examples of science-based classes naean system with indigenous classification schemes based on
that explicitly focus on the contributions of TEK to envi- use, morphology, or habitat (Pat Hurley, [Salish Kootenai
ronmental biology and natural resource management. Tra- College], personal communication, April 2001). Through
ditional knowledge is the centerpiece of a course at Oregon cross-cultural comparisons, students come to understand
State University,“Ecosystem Science of Pacific Northwest In- that all classification systems, Western and indigenous, are in-
dians.” The course represents a partnership between tribal fluenced by the observations available and respond to par-
members and OSU educators and is designed to compare ticular cultural needs. Consideration of alternative interpre-
Western scientific and Northwest Indian perspectives on tations trains students to think critically rather than passively
ecosystem management. accept a familiar paradigm.
At SUNY (State University of New York), I offer a course The opportunities to enrich our class presentations with
called “Land and Culture,” which is designed for an audience TEK are rich and varied. I have found that students receive
of environmental biology majors. Using case studies, stu- cross-cultural views with great enthusiasm. I routinely in-
dents compare the perspectives of indigenous communities corporate Native American stories and examples of traditional
with those of Western scientists on topical science and pol- practices into biology lectures. The oral tradition of TEK of-
icy issues. Case studies have a high biological content and in- fers a detailed prescription for “living in place” and includes
clude wildlife biology, salmon restoration, conservation bi- both empirical and metaphorical elements. Many indige-
ology, agroecosystems, forest management, fire ecology, and nous stories arose as vehicles for teaching and have great
ethnobotany. Students examine how cultural context influ- value in the classroom. In my experience, stories provide a
ences research questions, interpretation of research results, and memorable context that helps students retain information and
development of management alternatives. In a simulated integrate it with their own experience. The rich literature of
public hearing, students are asked to represent the positions published Native American stories provides a wealth of ex-
of multiple stakeholders, including indigenous communi- amples to draw upon. Traditional stories may also contain
ties and scientists. Reading and responding to primary doc- valuable biological insights. For example, Pierotti and Wild-
uments from multiple perspectives gives students a hands-on cat (2000) report on the relation between indigenous stories
appreciation for the complexities of interpreting science in a of Badger and Coyote hunting together and the empirical ver-
cross-cultural context. Throughout the course, students are ification of cooperation between predators (Minta et al.
provided with primary documents for each case study: reports, 1992).
scientific papers, news stories, court cases, as well as infor- Traditional ecological knowledge incorporates the histor-
mation from non-Western, nonscientific perspectives. ical and contemporary role of human beings in shaping com-
Concepts of traditional ecological knowledge may also be munities and landscapes. Most biology courses use local
readily interwoven with existing course offerings. For example, ecosystems as case studies for teaching biological concepts, and

436 BioScience • May 2002 / Vol. 52 No. 5

 Education

nearly every university in the country is located on the an- and maintained this knowledge (Wavey 1993). Some tribes
cestral lands of indigenous peoples. The original inhabitants have designed educational and research guidelines to educate
played a significant role in influencing the local biota and land- scientists interested in working with Native American com-
scape pattern through manipulation of fire frequencies, hunt- munities to protect the rights of the indigenous peoples; an
ing and fishing practices, and vegetation management (An- excellent example is the Akwesasne Task Force on the Envi-
derson 1996). Interpreting the local landscape in light of ronment (Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment 1996).
traditional resource management practices is an excellent Misappropriation of traditional ecological knowledge can

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means of incorporating TEK into biology classes. Evalua- lead to adverse consequences, such as resource exploitation
tion of traditional land use practices can be valuable in teach- and misuse of knowledge. Professional guidelines for re-
ing concepts of successional dynamics, ecosystem manage- spectful use of TEK have been developed by a number of or-
ment, and evolutionary biology. ganizations (Mauro and Hardison 2000, Weber et al. 2000) and
Native scholars and practitioners of traditional ecological should be consulted. It is vital to respect the privileged, pri-
knowledge are authoritative primary sources to bring TEK into vate nature of some kinds of ceremonial information, and use
the classroom as guest speakers. At Oregon State University, only the information disseminated in reliable sources.
the course “Ecosystem Science of Northwest Indians” is co- Permission of the community should be sought whenever
taught by native scientists. At SUNY, College of Environ- possible.
mental Science and Forestry, we have been fortunate in bring- TEK exists in a particular cultural and ecological context
ing Native American leaders to campus through our Native and should be presented in relation to that intellectual tra-
American Visiting Scholars Program, funded by the US De- dition. Respectful use of traditional ecological knowledge in
partment of Agriculture. Local Native American communi- education calls for thoughtful consideration of the cohesive,
ties and tribal colleges may be of assistance in locating ap- internally consistent worldview to which it belongs. It may be
propriate speakers. The American Indian Science and tempting to extract “data”from TEK and import it to the more
Engineering Society maintains a list of Native American familiar context of Western science. For example, the tradi-
scientists and educators and has chapters on many college tional use of fire could be taught simply as data on vegetation
campuses. response to fire. There is clear merit in including such data.
Other tribal resources include a wide array of intertribal sci- But we do a disservice to our students and to the intellectual
entific and natural resource management organizations whose tradition of TEK if we don’t also consider the cultural frame-
publications provide excellent current cases in which West- work of fire. In indigenous culture, wise application of fire rep-
ern and indigenous science are being integrated in practice. resents not only ecological understanding of successional
Such organizations include the Great Lakes Intertribal Fish dynamics but also embodies the spiritual responsibility for par-
and Wildlife Commission, Intertribal Bison Cooperative, In- ticipation in land stewardship.
tertribal Timber Council, Columbia River Intertribal Fish I have found students to be hungry for an approach to un-
Commission, and California Indian Basketweavers Associa- derstanding nature that includes both science and cultural val-
tion, among many others. ues and spirituality. After almost every presentation linking
traditional knowledge to science education, students come for-
Protection and appropriate use of ward to express appreciation and to voice their frustration that
traditional ecological knowledge their scientific curriculum allows no room for cultural con-
Consistent with a call to introduce science students to the va- cerns, even denies the validity of such concerns. A number of
lidity and value of traditional ecological knowledge, such very capable students tell the story of abandoning their sci-
education should be inseparable from a serious discussion of ence education and a potential place in the scientific com-
protection of traditional knowledge from exploitation. TEK munity, because of the perception that science prohibits the
represents the collective intellectual contributions of indige- expression of personal connection to nature. At a time when
nous peoples, accumulated and systematized over millen- our ecosystems are threatened by imbalance between hu-
nia. The identity of the practitioners, informants, and the com- mans and nature, we cannot afford to discourage such stu-
munity should always be fully referenced and acknowledged dents from membership in the scientific community.
with the same diligence that scientists apply to the contribu- Stepping outside our own cultural and educational frame-
tions of their academic colleagues. work is exceedingly difficult—difficult, but worthwhile. As we
Protection of traditional ecological knowledge has often seek to redefine our evolving relationship with nature, the
been framed in terms of intellectual property rights (Brush knowledge systems of indigenous people can provide useful
1996, Posey 1996), which are intended to ensure equitable ben- models. But the goal is not to appropriate the values of in-
efits from the use of TEK. However, the ethical question goes digenous peoples. As an immigrant culture, Americans must
beyond appropriate monetary compensation for use of knowl- start to engage in their own process of becoming indigenous
edge. Mauro and Hardison (2000) review policy initiatives that to this place and regain their roles as members of the ecological
regulate access to TEK and institutionalize equal participation community. If bringing traditional ecological knowledge to
with indigenous peoples. Indigenous control over TEK is es- its rightful place in science education can move us toward that
sential to cultural survival for the people who have generated goal, then we will all be richer for the effort.

May 2002 / Vol. 52 No. 5 • BioScience 437

Education
[IUCN] International Union for the Conservation of Nature 1986.Tradition,
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