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Program: B.Tech

Subject Name: Data Structure

Subject Code: IT303

Semester: 3rd

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Que 1- What are the areas where data structures are extensively applied?
(Answer)
Summary - Data structures find extensive application in various domains such as
software development, database management, networking, artificial intelligence, and
bioinformatics. In software development, they are used for efficient storage and retrieval
of data, optimizing algorithms, and managing memory. In database management, data
structures facilitate indexing, searching, and sorting of large datasets. Networking relies
on data structures for packet routing and congestion management. Artificial intelligence
utilizes data structures for representing knowledge and optimizing search algorithms.
Bioinformatics employs them for analyzing biological data sequences.

Que 2- Explain the different operations that can be performed on a data structure.
(Answer)
Summary - Data structures support fundamental operations like insertion, deletion,
traversal, search, and sorting. Insertion involves adding new elements to the structure,
while deletion removes existing ones. Traversal allows accessing each element
sequentially. Search helps find specific elements efficiently. Sorting rearranges elements
in a specified order, facilitating easier access and analysis. These operations vary in
complexity and efficiency depending on the type of data structure used.

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Que 3- Define an array and describe its storage structure. (Answer)
Summary - An array is a linear data structure consisting of a collection of elements,
each identified by an index or key. It stores elements of the same data type sequentially
in contiguous memory locations. The storage structure of an array ensures efficient
access to elements using their indices. Arrays provide constant-time access to elements
but require contiguous memory allocation, limiting flexibility in size adjustments during
runtime.

Que 4- Differentiate between a skewed binary tree and a complete binary tree.
(Answer)
Summary - A skewed binary tree is unbalanced, with nodes predominantly branching to
one side, either left or right, leading to inefficient search operations. In contrast, a
complete binary tree is balanced, where every level except possibly the last is fully
filled, and all nodes are as far left as possible, ensuring optimal search performance.
Skewed trees lack balance, while complete trees maximize efficiency in storage and
retrieval.

Que 5- Explain the concept of a spanning tree and its components. (Answer)
Summary - A spanning tree of a graph is a subgraph that includes all the vertices of the
original graph, with the minimum possible number of edges to ensure connectivity. It

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has no cycles, making it a tree. Components of a spanning tree include vertices (nodes)
and edges. The vertices represent the nodes of the original graph, while the edges
connect these vertices to form the tree, ensuring that every vertex is reachable from
every other vertex.

Que 6- Describe the different ways of representing graphs. (Answer)

Summary - Graphs can be represented using various data structures such as
adjacency matrix, adjacency list, and adjacency set. An adjacency matrix uses a 2D
array to denote connections between vertices, where matrix[i][j] indicates whether there
is an edge between vertices i and j. Adjacency lists use arrays or linked lists to store
neighbors of each vertex. Adjacency sets use sets to represent neighbors, providing
efficient membership testing. Each representation has unique advantages based on
specific graph characteristics and operations.

Que 7- Show the result of inserting elements into an initially empty binary tree.
(Answer)
Summary - Inserting elements into an initially empty binary tree follows a specific
pattern based on the values being inserted. For instance, inserting elements 5, 3, 8, 2,
4, and 7 could result in the following binary tree:

/ \
5
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3 8
/ \ /
2 4 7

Each element is inserted according to its value, with smaller values going to the left and
larger values going to the right, maintaining the binary search tree property.

Que 8- Write short notes on Depth First Search, Time Complexity, and Fibonacci
Search. (Fibonacci DFS / Time complexity)
Summary -
● Depth First Search (DFS) explores as far as possible along each branch before
backtracking. It's used for traversing or searching tree or graph structures.
● Time Complexity: The amount of time an algorithm takes to complete as a
function of the length of its input.
● Fibonacci Search: An efficient searching technique using divide and conquer,
suitable for sorted arrays. It divides the array into smaller subarrays based on
Fibonacci numbers to perform searches.

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Que 9- Explain dynamic memory allocation and the difference between static and
dynamic memory allocation. (Answer)
Summary - Dynamic memory allocation involves allocating memory during program
execution rather than at compile time. In dynamic allocation, memory is assigned and
released as needed, offering flexibility in managing memory resources. Static allocation
occurs at compile time, where memory is fixed and determined beforehand, leading to
potential wastage or insufficient memory allocation. Dynamic allocation allows for more
efficient memory usage and adaptability.

Que 10- Define a dequeue and explain it in detail. (Answer)

Summary - A dequeue, short for double-ended queue, is a linear data structure that
supports insertion and deletion operations at both ends. It allows elements to be added
or removed from either the front or the rear. Dequeues offer versatility in implementing
various algorithms, such as queues, stacks, and priority queues, making them suitable
for scenarios requiring efficient data manipulation from both ends.

Que 11- Explain collision resolution strategies. (Answer)

Summary - Collision resolution strategies are techniques used to handle collisions in
hash tables, where two different keys map to the same index. Common strategies
include chaining and open addressing. Chaining involves storing multiple elements with

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the same hash value in a linked list or another data structure at the same index. Open
addressing involves finding an alternative location in the table to store the collided
element, often by probing nearby slots.

Que 12- Construct a binary tree for given in-order and pre-order traversal
sequences. (Answer)
Summary - Constructing a binary tree from in-order and pre-order traversal sequences
involves using the properties of these traversals. The first element in the pre-order
traversal is the root. Find this element in the in-order traversal to determine the left and
right subtrees. Recursively apply this process to construct the entire tree. This approach
ensures correct reconstruction of the binary tree from the given traversals.

Que 13- Write short notes on Circular Linked List, AVL Tree, and Sparse Matrix.
(Answer)
Summary -
● Circular Linked List: A linked list where the last node points back to the first node,
forming a circular structure. Useful for applications where elements need to be
accessed in a circular manner, such as round-robin scheduling.

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 ● AVL Tree: A self-balancing binary search tree where the heights of the left and
right subtrees of any node differ by at most one. Maintains logarithmic time
complexity for insertion, deletion, and search operations.

● Sparse Matrix: A matrix where most of the elements are zero. Stored efficiently
using data structures like linked lists or arrays of tuples to save memory and
optimize operations on large matrices.
Que 14- Define a data structure and list out its applications. (Answer)
Summary - Data structure: Organized arrangement of data elements for efficient
storage, retrieval, and manipulation, vital in computer science and programming.

Applications:
1. Arrays: Used for storing and accessing elements of the same data type, often in lists
or tables.
2. Linked Lists: Suitable for dynamic memory allocation, implementation of stacks and
queues, and managing data in memory-constrained environments.
3. Trees: Essential in hierarchical data representation, such as file systems, database
indexing, and organizing hierarchical data like organizational charts.
4. Graphs: Employed in social networks, transportation networks, computer networks,
and geographical mapping.

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5. Hash Tables: Ideal for fast retrieval of data, often used in database indexing, symbol
tables, and implementing associative arrays.

Que 15- Discuss various operations on a data structure. (Answer)

Summary - Data structures support fundamental operations essential for data
manipulation and retrieval:-

1. Insertion: Adding new elements into the structure.

2. Deletion: Removing elements from the structure.
3. Search: Finding specific elements efficiently.
4. Traversal: Accessing each element sequentially.
5. Sorting: Rearranging elements in a specified order.
6. Access: Retrieving elements based on their position or key.
7. Update: Modifying existing elements in the structure.
These operations vary in complexity and efficiency depending on the type of data
structure used.

Que 16- Explain the importance of queue and why a linked list version is not
ideal. (Answer)

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Summary - Queues are crucial data structures for managing elements in a FIFO
(First-In-First-Out) manner, often used in scheduling, buffering, and task management
systems. While linked lists offer dynamic memory allocation and flexibility, their
sequential traversal makes them inefficient for queues, requiring O(n) time complexity
for enqueue and dequeue operations. In contrast, arrays or circular buffers provide
constant-time access, making them more suitable for implementing queues.

Que 17- What is the advantage of a circular queue over an ordinary queue?
(Answer)
Summary - Advantages of a circular queue over an ordinary queue:-
1. Efficient use of memory: Circular queues utilize a fixed-size buffer efficiently,
preventing wastage of memory.
2. Continuous operation: After reaching the end of the queue, elements can be inserted
at the beginning, ensuring continuous operation without resizing.
3. Improved performance: Circular queues offer constant-time complexity for enqueue
and dequeue operations, regardless of the size of the queue.
4. Reduced overhead: Avoids the need for shifting elements during enqueue and
dequeue operations, leading to better performance.
5. Simplicity in implementation: Circular queues are relatively simple to implement
compared to dynamic resizing in ordinary queues.

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6. Suitable for resource-constrained environments: Ideal for embedded systems or
environments with limited memory, where efficient memory usage is critical.

Que 18- Describe the classification of data structures with a neat diagram.
(Answer)
Summary - Data structures can be classified into two main categories:-
● Linear data structures include arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues, where
elements are arranged sequentially.
● Nonlinear data structures include trees and graphs, allowing for hierarchical and
interconnected relationships among elements.
This classification helps in understanding how data is organized and accessed, aiding in
the selection of appropriate data structures for specific applications.

Que 19- Explain Big-O notation and asymptotic analysis. (Answer)

Summary - Big-O notation is a mathematical notation used to describe the upper bound
of the time complexity of an algorithm. It represents the worst-case scenario for an
algorithm's performance in terms of the input size. Asymptotic analysis evaluates the
behavior of algorithms as the input size approaches infinity. Big-O notation, often
denoted as O(f(n)), provides a concise way to compare the efficiency of algorithms in
terms of their growth rates.

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Que 20- Analyze and write the running time complexity of a given function.
(Answer)
Summary - To analyze the running time complexity of a function, examine its operations
and their frequencies as a function of the input size. Identify loops, recursive calls, and
other repeated operations. Then, express the complexity using Big-O notation based on
the dominant term. For example, if a function contains a loop iterating over n elements,
its complexity is O(n). If nested loops are present, the complexity becomes O(n^2).

Que 21- Write an algorithm to implement merge sort with an example. (Answer)
Summary -
Algorithm: Merge Sort

1. Divide the array into two halves.

2. Recursively apply merge sort to each half.
3. Merge the sorted halves.
a. Initialize an empty array to store the sorted elements.
b. Compare elements from both halves and insert the smaller one into the result array.
c. Repeat until all elements are merged.
4. Return the sorted array.

Example:
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Input: [38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10]
Output: [3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]

Que 22- Describe different ways of stack representation and implement push and
pop functions. (Answer)
Summary - Stacks can be represented using arrays, linked lists, or dynamic arrays.
Array-based implementation allocates a fixed-size array, limiting flexibility but providing
constant-time access. Linked list implementation dynamically allocates memory,
allowing for dynamic resizing but with slightly slower access. Dynamic array
implementation combines benefits of both, offering dynamic resizing with relatively fast
access.

Que 23- Define a priority queue and explain its insertion and deletion operations.
(Answer)
Summary - A priority queue is a data structure that stores elements along with
associated priority values. Elements with higher priorities are dequeued before those
with lower priorities. Insertion involves adding an element with its priority into the queue.
Deletion removes the element with the highest priority from the queue. Priority queues

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can be implemented using various data structures like heaps, binary search trees, or
arrays with efficient insertion and deletion operations.

Que 24- Compare singly linked lists and two-way header lists. (Answer)
Summary - Singly linked lists allow traversal in one direction, from the head to the tail,
requiring linear time for operations like deletion at the tail.
Two-way header lists, also known as doubly linked lists, enable traversal in both
directions, offering constant-time deletion at the tail. While singly linked lists require less
memory, doubly linked lists provide greater flexibility in traversing and manipulating
elements bidirectionally, albeit with slightly higher memory overhead.

Que 25- Insert keys into an AVL tree and explain the process. (Answer)
Summary - To insert keys into an AVL tree:-
1. Start with the root node.
2. Compare the new key with the current node's key.
3. If the key is smaller, move to the left subtree; if larger, move to the right subtree.
4. Recursively insert the key into the appropriate subtree.
5. After insertion, update the height of each node and check for balance factors.
6. Perform rotation operations if necessary to maintain the AVL tree's balance.
7. Continue this process until the key is successfully inserted, ensuring the tree remains
balanced.
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Que 26- Write an algorithm for evaluating a postfix expression. (Answer)
Summary - Algorithm for evaluating a postfix expression :-

1. Create an empty stack to hold operands.

2. Iterate through each symbol in the postfix expression:
a. If the symbol is an operand, push it onto the stack.
b. If the symbol is an operator:
i. Pop the top two operands from the stack.
ii. Apply the operator to the operands.
iii. Push the result back onto the stack.
3. After processing all symbols, the final result will be the only element left in the stack.
Pop and return it.

Example: Postfix expression "5 3 + 8 *"

1. Push 5 onto the stack.
2. Push 3 onto the stack.
3. Pop 3 and 5, evaluate "3 + 5 = 8", push 8 onto the stack.
4. Push 8 onto the stack.

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5. Pop 8 and 8, evaluate "8 * 8 = 64", push 64 onto the stack.
6. Final result: 64.

Que 27- Explain the operations of a stack with a neat sketch. (Answer)
Summary - A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO)
principle. It supports two main operations: push and pop.
1. Push: Adds an element to the top of the stack.
2. Pop: Removes the top element from the stack.
Additionally, a stack may support other operations like peek (viewing the top element
without removing it) and isEmpty (checking if the stack is empty).
A stack can be visualized as a vertical structure, with elements stacked on top of each
other. New elements are added to the top, and removal occurs from the top as well.

Que 28- Write and explain an algorithm to implement the Josephus problem.
(Answer)
Summary - Algorithm for Josephus Problem:-
1. Create a circular linked list with n nodes, representing n people in a circle.
2. Start from the first person (head of the list).
3. Iterate through the list until only one person remains:
a. Count m nodes clockwise from the current person.

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b. Remove the mth person from the list.
c. Move to the next person in the list.
4. Repeat steps 3 until only one person remains.
5. The last remaining person is the survivor (the Josephus winner).

Explanation:
The algorithm simulates the elimination process in the Josephus problem, where every
mth person is removed until only one person remains. By iterating through the circular
linked list and removing nodes at intervals of m, we find the survivor node at the end of
the process.

Que 29- Show the steps of quick sort on a given set of elements. (Answer)

Que 30- Design a data representation for mapping data objects into an array.
(Answer)
Summary - One way to represent data objects in an array is through a hash table,
where each data object is mapped to an index in the array using a hashing function.
Here's how it works:

1. Define a hashing function that converts data object keys into array indices.

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2. Allocate an array with sufficient size to accommodate the maximum expected number
of data objects.
3. Map each data object to an index in the array using the hashing function.
4. Handle collisions, ensuring that multiple data objects can be stored at the same index
by using techniques like chaining or open addressing.
5. Access, insert, update, and delete data objects by computing the hash value and
manipulating the array accordingly.

This data representation provides efficient access to data objects and is commonly used
in various applications like database indexing, symbol tables, and associative arrays.

Que 31- Explain collision and methods to resolve it using a hash function.
(Answer)
Summary - Collision occurs in hashing when two or more keys hash to the same index
in a hash table. Common methods to resolve collisions include:-

1. Chaining: Each bucket in the hash table contains a linked list or array of elements
that hash to the same index. When a collision occurs, the new element is appended to
the list/array in the corresponding bucket.

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2. Open Addressing: When a collision occurs, an alternative empty slot in the hash table
is found by probing. Probing techniques include linear probing (checking successive
slots), quadratic probing (checking slots at quadratic intervals), and double hashing
(using a secondary hash function to calculate the interval).

3. Robin Hood Hashing: A variant of open addressing where elements are reorganized
based on their distance from the original hash location. Elements are "robbed" from
buckets with more elements and placed into buckets with fewer elements, reducing
clustering.

These methods ensure efficient handling of collisions, maintaining a balance between

memory usage and performance in hash table operations.

Que 32- Insert a sequence of keys into a hash table using separate chaining
technique. (Answer)
Summary - Sure, here's how you can insert a sequence of keys into a hash table using
separate chaining:

1. Initialize a hash table with an array of linked lists.

2. For each key in the sequence:

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 a. Calculate the hash value of the key using a hash function.
b. Determine the index in the hash table corresponding to the hash value.
c. Insert the key into the linked list at the determined index in the hash table.
d. If there's a collision, append the key to the linked list at the determined index.

Repeat these steps for each key in the sequence, resulting in a hash table with keys
stored using separate chaining to handle collisions efficiently.

Que 33- Explain the concept of a binary tree and its representation. (Answer)
Summary - A binary tree is a hierarchical data structure composed of nodes, each
containing a value and at most two children nodes, referred to as the left child and the
right child. The representation of a binary tree can be done using either an array-based
approach or a linked structure. In the array-based approach, the tree is represented
using an array where the position of each node corresponds to its index in the array.
Alternatively, in the linked structure approach, each node contains pointers to its left and
right children. This flexibility allows binary trees to efficiently represent hierarchical
relationships in various applications.

Que 34- Describe the different operations that can be performed on a stack.
(Answer)

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Summary - Stacks support several fundamental operations:-

1. Push: Add an element to the top of the stack.

2. Pop: Remove and return the element from the top of the stack.
3. Peek (or Top): Return the element at the top of the stack without removing it.
4. isEmpty: Check if the stack is empty.
5. Size: Return the number of elements currently in the stack.
6. Clear: Remove all elements from the stack, resetting it to an empty state.
7. : Check if a specific element is present in the stack and return its position (counting
from the top).

These operations enable efficient Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) data manipulation, making

stacks useful in various algorithms and applications.

Que 35- Write an algorithm for the insertion operations in a doubly linked list.
(Answer)
Summary - Here's the algorithm for inserting a new node in a doubly linked list:-

1. Create a new node with the given data.

2. If the list is empty, set the new node as both the head and tail of the list.

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3. If inserting at the beginning:-
a. Set the new node's next pointer to point to the current head.
b. Set the current head's previous pointer to point to the new node.
c. Update the head pointer to point to the new node.
4. If inserting at the end:-
a. Set the new node's previous pointer to point to the current tail.
b. Set the current tail's next pointer to point to the new node.
c. Update the tail pointer to point to the new node.
5. If inserting at a specific position:-
a. Traverse the list to find the node at the desired position.
b. Set the new node's next pointer to point to the next node.
c. Set the new node's previous pointer to point to the previous node.
d. Update the previous and next nodes' pointers to include the new node.
6. Increment the size of the list if necessary.

This algorithm allows for flexible insertion of nodes at the beginning, end, or specified
position in a doubly linked list.

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