Open Channel Hydraulics

Definition and differences between pipe flow and open channel flow

The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow . The two kinds
of flow are similar in many ways but differ in one important respect. Open-channel flow must
have a free surface , whereas pipe flow has none. A free surface is subject to atmospheric
pressure. In Pipe flow there exist no direct atmospheric flow but hydraulic pressure only.

Figure of pipe and open channel flow

The two kinds of flow are compared in the figure above. On the left is pipe flow. Two
piezometers are placed in the pipe at sections 1 and 2. The water levels in the pipes are
maintained by the pressure in the pipe at elevations represented by the hydraulics grade line
or hydraulic gradient . The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is shown
in the tube by the height y of a column of water above the centre line of the pipe.
The total energy of the flow of the section (with reference to a datum) is the sum of the
elevation z of the pipe centre line, the piezometric head y and the velocity head V2 /2g , where
V is the mean velocity. The energy is represented in the figure by what is known as the energy
grade line or the energy gradient .
The loss of energy that results when water flows from section 1 to section 2 is represented by
hf.
A similar diagram for open channel flow is shown to the right. This is simplified by assuming
parallel flow with a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of the channel is small. In
this case the hydraulic gradient is the water surface as the depth of water corresponds to the
piezometric height.

Open-channel flow embraces a variety of problems that arise when water flows in
rivers, regular (human-made) canals, irrigation ditches, sewer lines, flumes and so
forth. Therefore, it has a great importance to civil engineers.

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Types of open channel shapes

Flow conditions in open channels are complicated by the fact that the position of the
free surface is likely to change with time and also along the flow direction, and also
–the depth of flow, y
–the discharge, Q
–the slope of the channel bottom, So, (So= sinθ)

Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than by pressure work as in pipes. The flow
takes place along the channel bottom direction.

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Kinds of Open Channel
Canal, Flume, Chute, Drop, Culvert and Open-Flow Tunnel

 CANAL is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground.

 FLUME is a channel usually supported on or above the surface of the ground
to carry water across a depression.
 CHUTE is a channel having steep slopes.
 DROP is similar to a chute, but the change in elevation is affected in a short
distance.
 CULVERT is a covered channel flowing partly full, which is installed to drain
water through highway and railroad embankments.
 OPEN-FLOW TUNNEL is a comparatively long covered channel used to
carry water through a hill or any obstruction on the ground

1.2 Types of flow

The following classifications are made according to change in flow depth with respect to time
and space.

Steady and Unsteady: Time is the criterion.

Flow is said to be steady if the depth of flow at a particular point does not change or can be
considered constant for the time interval under consideration. The flow is unsteady if depth
changes with time.

Uniform Flow: Space as the criterion.

Open Channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are the same at
every section of the channel. Hence it follows that uniform flow can only occur in prismatic
channels.
For steady uniform flow, depth and velocity is constant with both time and distance. This
constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel. It occurs when gravity forces are
in equilibrium with resistance forces.

Steady non-uniform flow.

Depth varies with distance but not with time. This type of flow may be either (a) gradually
varied or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a) requires the application of the energy and frictional

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resistance equations while type (b) requires the energy and momentum equations.

Unsteady flow
The depth varies with both time and space. This is the most common type of flow and
requires the solution of the energy momentum and friction equations with time. In many
practical cases the flow is sufficiently close to steady flow therefore it can be analysed as
gradually varied steady flow.

Varied steady flow – when depth changes but discharge remains the same
Varied unsteady flow – when both depth and discharge change along a channel length
of interest.
Rapidly varying flow – depth change is rapid
Gradually varying flow – depth change is gradual

Figure of the types of flow that may occur in open channels

Section 1 – rapidly varying flow

Section 2 – gradually varying flow
Section 3 – hydraulic jump
Section 4 – weir and waterfall
Section 5 – gradually varying
Section 6 – hydraulic drop due to change in channel slope

Kinds (types) of open channel flow

Reynolds number for pipe flow – NR = vD/ υ
Reynolds number for channel flow – NR = vR/ υ

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For pipe flow –
NR < 2000 – laminar
NR > 4000 – turbulent
For channel flow –
NR < 500 – laminar
NR > 2000 – turbulent

Another “number” for channel flow!

Froude Number [NF] (gravity versus inertial forces)
Fr = Inertial force/gravity force, and Fr2 = V2/gD or Fr = V/√gYh
Where yh is referred to as the hydraulic depth and given as – yh = A/T
where A is the area and T is the top width of the channel
 In an open-channel flow, there are three types of flow depending on the value
of Froude number:

Fr>1 Supercritical Flow

Fr=1 Critical Flow
Fr<1 Subcritical Flow

A combination of both the numbers is used to describe channel flow conditions.

Uniform steady flow and Manning’s Equation

When discharge remains the same and depth does not change then we have uniform
steady flow. In this condition – The surface of water is parallel to the bed of the
channel Or S = Sw

Where S is the slope of the channel

The slope of the channel can be expressed as –
- An angle = 1 degrees
- As percent = 1%
- Or as fraction = 0.01 or 1 in 100

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2 common equations for the analysis of uniform open channel flow.

Velocity of flow (v) in a channel can be computed by numerous empirical

equations; common ones are Mannings equation and Chezy equation–

Manning’s equation
V = 1/n R 2/3 S 1/2
This the SI units form of the equation with v (meters/sec) and R (meters).
Where n is the Manning’s coefficient (dimensionless) – values developed through
experimentation

Chezy’s equation
V = C.√RS

V = velocity (m/s)
C = Chezy’s constant

S = Slope of HGL for uniform flow S = S0

Uniform Flow in Open Channels

1. Water depth, flow area, discharge and velocity must remain unchanged in all
sections of the entire channel.
2. EGL, the water surface, the channel bottom must be parallel to each other

Se = Sw.s = S0
Se = Slope of EGL
Sw.s = Slope water surface

S0 = Slope of channel

Example 9: A 3 m wide rectangular channel a discharge of 25m3/sec at a uniform

depth of 1.2 m. Determine the slope of the channel if n= 0.022.

y = 1.2 m
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b = 3m
Area = b x y = 3 x 1.2 = 3.6m2

P = 2y + b = 2 x 1.2 +3 = 2.4 + 3 = 5.4m

R = A/P = 3.6/5.4 = 0.67m

Apply Manning’s equation

V = 1/n R 2/3 S ½
Q/A = 1/n R 2/3 S ½

S = (Qn/A. R 2/3)2

S = (25 m3/sec x 0.022/3.6m2 x 0.672/3 m) 2 = 0.041

Example 2
Determine normal discharge for a 200 mm inside diameter common clay drainage tile
running half-full if the slope drops 1 m over 1000 m; n= 0.013

S = 1/1000 = 0.001
A = (1/2) * (π D2/4) = 0.5*π*(0.2)2/4 = 0.0157 m2
WP = (1/2) * (π D) = 0.5*π*0.2 = 0.3141 m
R = 0.05 m
Substitute these values in the equation –

Q = A1/nR 2/3 S 1/2

And we get
*0.0157 *(0.05)2/ 3 (0.001)1/ 2
0.013
Q = 1.0/0.013 0.0157 *(0.05)2/ 3 (0.001)1/ 2
Q = 5.18 x 10-3 m3/s

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Calculate slope of channel below if Q = 50 ft3/s (1.416m3/sec)formed unfinished
concrete channel

Note:
8ft = 2.4m; 2ft = 0.61m; 4ft = 1.2m

Equation that you will use

Q = A1/nR 2/3S ½

Or
S1/2 = Qn/AR 2/3

Compute A = 12 ft2 (1.1m²)

WP = 9.66 ft (2.9m)
R = A/WP = 12/9.66 = 1.24 ft (0.38m)
Manning’s n for concrete channel = 0.017
Substitute
And S = 0.00169

1.3 Properties of open channels

Artificial channels
These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals, navigation canals, spillways,
sewers, culverts and drainage ditches. They are usually constructed in a regular cross-section
shape throughout – and are thus prismatic channels (they don’t widen or get narrower along
the channel. In the field they are commonly constructed of concrete, steel or earth and have
the surface roughness’ reasonably well defined (although this may change with age
particularly grass lined channels.) Analysis of flow in such well defined channels will give
reasonably accurate results.

Natural channels

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Natural channels can be very different. They are not regular nor prismatic and their materials
of construction can vary widely (although they are mainly of earth this can possess many
different properties.) The surface roughness will often change with time distance and even
elevation. Consequently it becomes more difficult to accurately analyse and obtain
satisfactory results for natural channels than is does for man made ones. The situation may be
further complicated if the boundary is not fixed i.e. erosion and deposition of sediments.

 A channel built with unvarying cross section and constant bottom slope is
called a PRISMATIC CHANNEL.
 Otherwise, the channel is NONPRISMATIC
 THE CHANNEL SECTION is the cross section of a channel taken normal to
the direction of the flow.
 THE VERTICAL CHANNEL SECTION is the vertical section passing
through the lowest or bottom point of the channel section.

Main characteristics of natural and artificial open channels

Natural open channels Man-made or artificial open channels
Natural channels have uncontrolled solid Human-made channels have fixed solid
boundaries which continuously change by boundaries for which the problems are
erosion and deposition under the effect of easier to solve compared to natural ones.
flow itself.

Geometric Elements of Channel Section

For analysis various geometric properties of the channel cross-sections are required. For
artificial channels these can usually be defined using simple algebraic equations given y the
depth of flow. The commonly needed geometric properties are shown in the figure below and
defined as:

Depth ( y ) – the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel section to the free
surface.
Stage ( z ) – the vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
Area ( A ) – the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction of flow
Wetted perimeter ( P ) – the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction of
flow.
Surface width ( B ) – width of the channel section at the free surface
Hydraulic radius ( R ) – the ratio of area to wetted perimeter ( A/P )
Hydraulic mean depth ( Dm ) – the ratio of area to surface width ( A/B )

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 Table of equations for rectangular trapezoidal and circular channels.

Summary
1) Open Channel Flow must have a free surface

2) A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure

3) The driving force is mainly the component of gravity along the flow direction.

4) HGL is coincident with the free surface.

5) Flow area is determined by the geometry of the channel plus the level of free
surface, which is likely to change along the flow direction and with as well as time.

6)The cross section may be of any from circular to irregular forms of natural streams,
which may change along the flow direction and as well as with time.

7) Relative roughness changes with the level of free surface

8) The depth of flow, discharge and the slopes of channel bottom and of the free
surface are interdependent.

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