INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY - 802

CLASS – XI
SESSION – 2020-21
(DRAFT STUDY MATERIAL)
Session 1: Fundamentals of Computer

Introduction

In today’s world we can see that almost all our work is being done with the help of computers.
Applications of computers can be seen in every electrical device nowadays whether it is television,
washing machine, watches, mobile phones and the list is endle ss. With the advancement in use
and technology, use of electronic devices has increased manifold. All this is possible because of the
ease and accuracy we get with these devices. Life has taken a fast pace and distances make hardly
any difference with the help of these machines. Let us have an insight to the basics of computers
in this chapter.

Evolution of Computers

Growth of the computer industry started with the need for performing fast calculations. The
manual method of computing was slow and prone to errors. So attempts were made to develop
faster calculating devices. The journey that started from the first calcul ating device i.e. Abacus has
led us today to extremely high speed calculating devices.

Computer is a term derived from the term ‘compute’ which means to calculate. Computer takes
input from the user, processes it and displays output. It is a device that works on a set of
instructions. It takes input from the user, processes the input according to the set of instructions
and gives the output.

Computer is an electronic device and works on electronic signals. The on and off signals denote 1
and 0 respectively. The binary language, also called machine language, works on two digits 0 and
1. Earlier computer experts used to work and give instruction in binary language only. Over the
years, many user friendly languages similar to simple English terms have develo ped and every
computer programmer need not learn and give instructions in binary language. Many user friendly
languages have been developed like C, C++, Java, JavaScript, Python and many more. These
languages are known as high level languages. Commands given in high level languages need to be
converted into binary language with the help of translators.

All this is achieved by an effective coordination of the components of the computer; broadly
categorized as hardware and the software. The term hardware re fers to the tangible components
of a computer that we can touch and feel like the keyboard, mouse, monitor. However, the term
software refers to a set of instructions and is intangible. Some examples of software are operating
systems, word processors, spreadsheets, online calculators etc.

The data and/or instructions given by the user to the machine are termed as Input and the result
generated by the machine after processing the data is the Output.
Characteristics of a Computer
Computer has become an inseparable part of our lives today because of following characteristics:

Speed : A remarkable quality of computers is their ability to process data and instructions at a very
high speed. A typical high-speed computer can perform about 3-4 mips (million instructions per
second). Note that this is different from the speed with which information can be sent to and from
a computer, which is normally measured in baud.

Versatility: is the ability of a computer to do a variety of jobs with ease. One moment you can type
a letter using any of the available word processing packages, and the other moment you can use
the same machine to do calculations yielding the salaries of employees of an organization.

Accuracy: Not only does the machine perform varied jobs with high speed, but also does them with
high precision and accuracy. Note that the errors that one may see in output produced by the
computer is not because of the machine, but because of either wrong entry of data or wrong
instructions given to compute. In computer terminology, this phenomena is often referred to as
GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out)

Diligence: Another noteworthy feature of computers is its ability to perform the same task
repeatedly over and over again without getting bored! For example a task of adding 1000 numbers
repeatedly for 10000 times if given to a computer, it would be able to do the task with the same
accuracy every time without complaining that it is being asked to do this job over and over again!!!

Memory: One of the notable features of a computer is its memory. However, the computer’s main
memory is volatile, i.e., it is lost when we switch off the computer.
Therefore, computers are provided another form of memory that does not fade away when it is
switched off. It is called secondary memory and is available in the form of floppy disks, pen drives,
portable hard disks.

Storage: Huge amounts of data and information can be stored in a computer for future retrieval.
The human memory is limited and fades away with time, which is not true for a computer.

Intelligence: In the early days, although computers possessed striking characteristics yet a
prominent drawback was that they are merely dumb machines which were programmed to
perform certain tasks. With the advent of artificial intelligence techniques, we now have machines
which can drive a car without a human driver or play chess against the best players.

Thus to summarize, this electronic device is capable of storing, processing huge amounts of data
and/or instructions with accuracy, diligence and high speed in an untiring manner.

Having seen the characteristics of a computer, now let us understand the way a computer works.

Components of a Computer
The computer is the combination of hardware and software. Hardware are the physical
components of a computer like motherboard, memory devices, monitor, keyboard etc. while
software is the set of programs or instructions. Both hardware and software together make the
computer system function. Let us first have a look at the functional components of a computer.

Every task given to a computer follows an Input- Process- Output Cycle (IPO cycle). It needs certain
input, processes that input and produces the desired output. The input unit takes the input, the
central processing unit does the processing of data and the output unit produces the output. The
memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.

Let us discuss each component and its functionality :-

Input: To initiate the process, the computer needs to be told of the problem to be solved. For this
purpose, a set of instructions and data is provided through the input devices such as keyboard and
mouse. A set of instructions provided to the computer for doing a task is called a program.

Storage: There are basically two types of computer storage devices:

Primary Memory : Data stored in Primary Memory is directly accessible by the CPU. The inputs
received in the above steps are stored in the computer memory, called random access memory
(RAM). This storage is relatively fast and expensive as compared to the secondary storage.
Primary memory is directly connected to the CPU.
It is also called main memory, primary memory, or working memory of the machine.

Primary memory is of two types :

1. RAM ( Random Access Memory) : It is a primary volatile memory i.e. its data gets lost once
the power supply is stopped.

RAM is of two types : DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM ( Static Random Access
Memory.

DRAM SRAM
Used in main memory It is used in cache
Inexpensive Expensive
 Uses less power Uses more power
Slower than SRAM Faster than DRAM

2. ROM ( Read Only Memory) : It is generally used in startup operations of computer. It is a

non-volatile primary memory. Further it may be classified as : ROM, PROM(Programmable read
only memory), EPROM ( Erasable Programmable read only memory), EEPROM ( ElectricallyErasable
Programmable read only memory)

Secondary Storage: The memory which is external to the computer system forms the secondary
storage, for example, the magnetic tapes, compact disks, pen drives are all examples of the
secondary storage. These are not directly connected to the CPU.

Cache Memory : it is a very high speed memory which is used to cope -up with the high speed of
CPU. It is generally placed between CPU and Primary memory and acts as a buffer. It reduces the
average access time to data from the main memory and is comparatively expensive.

All the inputs, the intermediate results of computation carried out, and the final result are stored
in the memory of the computer. The computer also has another form of memory called secondary
memory. The programs and data not currently required are stored in secondary memory. It comes
in the forms such as a hard disk, pen drive, and CDROM. When required, for processing, these can
be retrieved and transferred to the main memory of the computer, Processing: The inputs provided
by the user are processed by the central processing unit as per the specified instructions. The result
of the processing is then either directed to the output devices or to a memory location for storage.

Control Unit: is responsible for coordination between the different units of a computer. It controls
the input, processing and output operations. For example, it coordinates with the peripheral
devices to accept the input or display the output. It is like a manager of all operations.

The manner in which the program is to be executed is managed by the control unit of the computer.
This entails deciding the address from which the instructions to be executed is to be picked up, the
memory location where the data or intermediate result is to be stored, etc.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): is responsible for actual processing of data. It retrieves the data from
the storage unit and performs the arithmetic calculations and/or comparisons on them and the
processed data is then sent back to the storage.
Output: The result of processing carried out by the computer is often directed to the display device
such as the monitor or printer. Other forms of devices are not uncommon, for example, the
computer may output music or video.

We have seen above that the input unit receives data, which is stored in the main memory, from
where it gets transferred to the Central Processing Unit and subsequently to the output device. The
Central Processing Unit has two modules; the Arithmetic Logic Unit and the Control Unit.

It also coordinates between memory and ALU by issuing timely signals. As mentioned above, the
storage unit has primary storage and secondary storage.

Block Diagram of Computer

Inside the Computer

There are various types of computers in the market these days, desktop personal computer –
popularly known as PC, laptop (also called notebook) – a small computer that can easily put on your
lap, tablet – a light computer of the size of a handbook, often used for working on the Internet.

If we look at a personal computer, from outside, it looks like a box (sometimes called CPU) that
contains CPU and hard disks, keyboard, mouse, monitor and speakers. The keyboard, mouse,
speakers, printer and other attachments like- scanner constitute the peripherals. The major
functionality in a computer is done in the Processing Unit. Processing Unit takes input and
processes it through the set of instructions ( given in the software) for that input and finally it gives
the results to the output unit.

Let’s now peep into the chassis of a processor!

Self Assessment Exercises:

1. Define the following :

a. Computer
b. Input Device
c. Output Device
d. Processor
2. Expand the following :
a. ALU
b. CPU
c. CU
d. RAM
e. EEPROM
f. ROM
g. DRAM
h. SDRAM
3. Answer the following
a. Explain the block diagram of computer
b. Describe the function of ALU and CU in short
c. Differentiate between RAM and ROM
d. Differentiate between input and output devices.
e. Explain the importance of Cache memory.
Session 2: Components of Computer

Motherboard: This is the main circuit board which holds together various components like CPU,
memory, connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion cards to control the video and
audio, and connections in the form of various ports (such as USB ports). It provides a connection to
every component of the computer.

Input – Output Devices

Input devices takes input from the user. The input may be in the form of text, image, sound, video
etc. a wide range of input devices have been devised for supporting varying types of input.
Following are examples of some of the input devices of computer:

- Keyboard: this is a standard input device and takes data in the form of text.
- Mouse ; it is a pointing input device.
- Webcam: it takes data in the form of video/image
- Scanner : it generally stores data in the form of graphics
- Microphone : it is used for voice input/ audio input
- Handwriting input board: it is used for giving input from

Output Devices: devices that are used to give output to the user. Output may be in the form of
visuals, text, audio, printout etc. different types of output devices are there to support various
types of output. Following are some examples of output devices:

- Monitor/ VDU ( Visual Display Unit) : it is the standard output device and is similar to a television
screen.
- Speaker : it is an output device that gives output in the form of an audio/ voice.
- Printer : it is also a very commonly known output device that gives output in the form of print out
also called as hard copy.
- Plotter : it is a large printer like device that is used to take print of large maps, architectural
designs.
- Projector : it is an output device that gives an enlarged view of the output on a large screen. It is
generally used for giving a view of output to a large audience.

CPU: The motherboard houses the main processor or the CPU (Central Processing Unit). CPU
executes the user instructions and coordinates amongst all other
units of the computer. Thus, it is primarily responsible for the
performance of the machine. Processors may be classified on the
on the basis of their speed, technology (dual-core, quad-core, octa-
core) and their manufacturers (Intel and AMD to name just two).
Speed of processors is usually measured in megahertz (MHz) – millions of instructions per
second; and gigahertz (GHz) – billions of instructions per second, is indicative of its power.

Power Supply Unit: This component of the computer is the one which converts the alternate
current power supply being received by homes or offices to the low voltage direct current
required by the machine.

Random Access Memory (RAM): This memory storage plays an important role in the functioning of
a computer system. Every time you start up the computer, the operating system (the system
software that manages the device’s interaction with the peripherals and the internal resources) is
loaded in the RAM. The program that needs to be executed at any point of time also needs to be
brought in the RAM. These days the PCs have around 8-32 GB RAM. More the RAM, more will be
the space for the programs leading to faster execution. Of course, everything in computers is
subject to some limits.

Hard Disk(HD): all the data stored in c drive of a computer

is basically stored in Hard Disk.. It is a magnetic secondary
storage device for storing the data and is fixed in the box
of a computer. The program which is to be executed is first
stored in the hard disk from where it is transferred to
RAM. On completion of work, the program is again saved
on the hard disk. These days external and portable hard
disks are also available in the market for large storage of
data.

It is usually characterized by the performance and its capacity. Memory capacity is specified in
terms of bytes. These days the capacity of a hard disk is expressed in terms of Gigabytes, Terabytes.

Pen drive/Flash drives : it is a small pen-like storage device of and can be accessed by directly
inserting in the USB(Universal Serial Bus) Port. It is very popular these days because of its small size
and easy accessibility.

Let us look into the hierarchy of the terms used to specify the capacity.

Every bit of information in computer is stored in terms of Bits

(Binary Digits) i.e. 0s and 1s

1 nibble = 4 bits

1 byte = 8 bits

1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB) 1024 KB = 1 Megabyte (MB)

 1024 MB = 1 Gigabyte (GB)

1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB)

1024 TB = 1 Petabyte (PB)

1024 PB= 1 Exabyte(EB)

1024 EB = 1 Zettabyte(ZB)

1024 ZB = 1 Yottabyte (YB)

Optical Storage devices : Compact disc (CD) and Digital Video Disc(DVD) are examples of optical
storage devices. Capacity of a DVD is higher than that of a CD. Data in a Cd/DVD may be accessed
by inserting the disc in a Disc Drive. Following is the image of a CD/ DVD drive:

All these components need to work in coordination and this is accomplished by the operating
system. It initializes the system for our use. In the next section, we study the basics of operating
systems.

Self Assessment Exercises

1. Explain storage devices of a computer.

2. Describe secondary and primary storage devices of a computer
3. Write a short note on Optical storage devices 4. Explain the role of Power Supply Unit.
5. Explain various units to measure storage capacity of a device. Give the smallest unit.
6. Do the following conversions :
a.2 GB = ___________KB
b. 210 MB = _ _________B
Session 3: Operating System

Operating System :

Operating system is the software that acts as an interface between user and computer hardware.
A computer needs to communicate with both the hardware and software; to do this; it utilizes the
services of an Operating system. Examples of some popular operating system are Windows, Linux,
Unix, MS-DOS, SOLARIS, MAC OS, Gary Arlen Kildall is known as the father of operating system.

It also acts like a government which lays down policies for efficient utilization of the resources and
provides for effective coordination amongst the various components of a computer. Every
computer system whether it is an independent system like a desktop or a cell phone must have an
operating system for performing the core functionalities like accepting input from various input
devices, directing the output to the display, managing the files and directories, communicating with
hardware, and installing /uninstalling of peripheral devices.

Figure 1.7 : Operating System as an Interface Functions of an Operating system can

be broadly categorized as:

− Communication Manager

− Resource Management

− Process Management

− File Management

− Memory Management
Figure 1.8 presents the various functions of an operating system.

Figure : 1.8 Functions of Operating System

Communication Manager: Manages the communication needs of the system, be it communicating

with the peripheral devices or the internet, are addressed by the operating system. Each of the
peripheral devices like printer, mouse have unique characteristics and the computer needs to know
these unique properties, to interact with them. For this, the operating system uses special
programs called drivers which enable recognition of these devices and their properties.

Resource Management: The working of a computer system is predominantly dependent on how its
resources are being managed. The resources that we talk of here are - the memory of the computer,
the CPU time, files, secondary storage, input/output devices etc. The operating system handles the
allocation of all such resources, the priority in which these are allotted to the various processes to
get an optimum performance from the system. We discuss here the prime resource management.

Process Management: A process is a program currently executing in the memory or waiting for the
CPU. In a computer there are multiple processes in the system. The OS manages, controls,
schedules all the processes being executed in the computer. It decides which process gets the
processor and for how long.

Memory Management: For a process to be executed, it has to be loaded in the working memory
that is the RAM (Random Access Memory). The memory management component of an operating
system allocates memory to the processes in a dynamic manner that is allocated on demand and
released when not needed.

File Management: Operating system takes care of all the files and folders (directories) maintained
on the computer disk. The basic tasks that a user needs to perform on files are creation, renaming,
deletion, copying or moving of a file or folder. All the files stored in a computer system can be
located through the file system. Two main types of file system are
Details of files in a computer are stored and traced using a file system called FAT. FAT is used by
the operating system to keep a track of files on hard disk. Various FAT systems are named on the
basis of the number of bits used to store the data of FAT. For ex ample : FAT 16 uses 16 bits to store
data, FAT 32 uses 32 bits. Another system is NTFS (New Technology File system).

Types of Operating system

Operating systems can be classified in different ways; depending on various parameters.

Single-tasking and Multi-tasking

Single Task Operating System : such operating systems allow execution of only a single program at
any given instant.

Multi-Tasking operating system can execute more than one program simultaneously. The processor
time, in this case, is divided amongst various processes.

Single user and Multi-user

Single-user operating systems allow only one user to use the system. The desktop systems can be
classified as typical single user systems

Multi-user operating systems allow many users to access the system by maintaining an account of
all the registered users.

Real-Time Operating System

Operating systems which ensure that the response time is fixed are categorized as real -time
operating systems. They are intended for applications where data needs to be processed quickly,
without any significant delays. For example, an anti-aircraft missile system must fire as soon as it
receives a signal from the enemy aircraft, before it leaves the bomb and flies away.

Batch Processing Systems

In a batch processing system, similar jobs are clubbed together and submitted as a block to the
processor for execution. User intervention is minimal in such systems. The jobs are picked up one
by one and executed.

Exercises

Fill in the blanks

1. The unit used to measure the performance of a computer is ..................... .

2. Two main types of File system are ..................... and ..................... .

3. ________________ is the software that acts as an interface between user and the hardware.
 Unit-2 Networking and Internet

 Computer Networking
 Internet and Its Terminology
 Cyber Threats and Cyber Security
 Unit-2 Networking and Internet
In the beginning of civilization humans communicated via means such as oral, gestures,
and touch. Knowledge transcended from one generation to another largely by way of oral
traditions, and later on by inscriptions on stone and metal until early forms of paper were
developed. However, education remained largely confined to the elite until the invention of
printing press by Johannes Gutenberg, around 1440. It led to dissemination of information
through newspapers and books and provided a new and versatile method of communication
of information. This was followed by the era of telegraph and telephone marking in the
nineteenth century. Twentieth century saw the development of commercially viable radio
and television which became instrumental in dissemination of information and
entertainment. ARPANET that began with a network connecting computers in a few
organizations in early sixties paved the way for the Internet in early eighties that
revolutionized not only the exchange of information amongst individuals and organizations,
but also the way organizations do business, and the people educate, entertain, and
organize themselves. Social networking, instant messaging, voice calls (through VOIP),
media are influencing the definition of Internet being used.

2.1 Computer Networking

2.1.1 Evolution of Networks and Internet

In 1876 Bell came forward with the concept of communication through telephone lines
leading to development of Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) in 1877. It opened
the new frontiers allowing several homes to connect through telephone lines. From that
time, communication was mainly through telephone lines.
In the late 1950s, all the military communications started using telephone networks setting
up dedicated connections between the two parties. This dedicated connection made use of
technology called circuit switching. The connection consisted of several intermediary lines
and switching offices enroute. They were vulnerable to danger of damage to the switching
offices which may disrupt the entire network. At the peak of the cold war, the US Department
of Defense (DoD) realized the need to establish fault-tolerant networks that would not fail
at the time of nuclear war and could survive a single point failure in the network. Paul Baran
along with Donald Davies and Len Kleinrock came forward with the idea of digital packet
switching in which the message to be transmitted is divided into small chunks called
packets. Unlike circuit switching in which resources are reserved along the dedicated path
of communication, packet switching is based on link sharing.
The US Department of Defense realized the need to connect geographically separated
research computers together to form a network. This led to the development of Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) in 1969. ARPANET made use of
technology called digital packet switching. Initially its use was restricted to non-commercial
purposes such as military and research. Subsequently, its use extended to education by
supporting various educational institutes.
Need for communication between various heterogeneous networks led to the development
of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) in 1970. Along with several
smaller networks, another large network called NSFNET was developed in 1984 by NSF,
U.S. National Science Foundation for research and education purposes. When ARPANET
and NSFNET were interconnected, the network growth increased tremendously. TCP/ IP
protocol (rules for communication) acted as a glue to connect various heterogeneous
networks together into a single network. This wide network is an Internet (network of
networks).
The Internet is a global network that comprises many voluntarily interconnected networks.
It operates without a central governing body. The standardization of the core protocols (IPv4
and IPv6) lis an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), To maintain
interoperability, the principal name spaces of the Internet are administered by the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). ICANN coordinates the
assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain names, Internet
Protocol (IP) addresses and many other parameters. Several government and private
organizations, collectively called Internet Service Providers (ISPs) joined hands to

Fig 2.1 one way communication channel

provide connectivity for the Internet. The Internet made it possible to exchange information
and communicate with remote nodes. Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate
of a network or Internet connection.

2.1.2 Computer Network

Nodes or stations are electronic devices such as computers, printers, Fax machines, and
telephones which communicate with each other by sending and receiving data/message.
Figure 2.1 depicts a one-way simple communication system that comprises the following
components:

● Sender: The node that is responsible for sending the data.

● Receiver: The node that is responsible for receiving the data.
● Message: Message is the information or meaningful data that is being communicated in
a structured form.
● Channel: Channel is the communication medium through which message is transmitted
 Fig 2.2 computer network

A collection of interconnected nodes which communicate by means of some channel form

a computer network. The communication taking place in a computer network can be
categorized as simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. In simplex mode, information can be
transferred only in one direction. This mode is termed unidirectional. In computer networks,
the data transmitted using many fiber optics and satellites is simple in nature. Half-duplex
mode is a bidirectional communication between the two nodes, however, only one node at
a time can transmit the data. This mode is generally used for transferring files between
nodes in a low-bandwidth setting. In full-duplex mode, both communicating parties can send
and receive at the same time.
interactive receive at the same time. The interactive applications use this mode of
communication, thus speeding up the data transfer.
NIC (Network Interface Card) on the systems for networking supports full-duplex mode.
Computer networks can be used as means of resource sharing and communication.

● Resource Sharing: Connecting computers through networking allows us to share

hardware and software resources. Examples of hardware resources include peripherals (for
example, printers and scanners), CPU, and memory. Examples of software resources
include system and application software, and files that may include text, audio, and video
content. Note that in the network shown in Figure 2.2, all the three computer systems are
connected with each other and to the printer through the network .

● Communication: Connecting computers through a network facilitates exchange of

information amongst the nodes in the network. For example, any of the computer systems
in Figure 3 may send data to any of the three computer systems or the printer, as it is
connected to every node in the network. Creation of a network requires various network
devices such as modems, routers, switches, and bridges, each of which plays a specific
role in the network. Networks differ on the basis of transmission media used, arrangement
of nodes in the network, their geographical span, and their purpose.
2.1.3 Transmission Medium

A transmission medium refers to the channel of transmission through which data can be
transmitted from one node to another in the form of signal. A signal encodes the data in a
form suitable for transmission on the medium. A medium is characterized by its bandwidth
defining the information carrying capacity of the medium. Common methods of Internet
access by users include dial-up with a computer modem via telephone circuits, broadband
over coaxial cable, fiber optics or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular telephone
technology (e.g. 3G, 4G).A transmission medium may belong to one of the following two
categories:
● Guided Medium: The term refers to physical conductors such as twisted pairs, coaxial
cable, and fiber optics. In twisted pair and coaxial cable, the signal travels as voltage and
current signal whereas in optical fibre, the signal is in the form of light.
● Unguided Medium: The unguided mediu, m uses electro-magnetic waves that do not
require a physical conductor. Examples of unguided medium include microwave, radio
wave, infrared. Radio and microwave

Fig 2.1.3 Transmission Medium

2.1.4 Network Devices

Creation of a network requires various network devices, each of which plays a specific
role
in the network.

 Repeater
With increase in distance, a signal may become weak and distorted. A repeater is used to
restore the input signal to its original form, so that it can travel a larger distance. Thus, it is
placed between two cable segments as shown in Figure 2.4 It is also known as digital
generator which reshapes and amplifies the digital signal.
.

Fig-Repeater 2.4

● Hub
Unlike a repeater which connects two cables, a
hub connects several lines, also called, cable
segments. A hub comprises several input/output
(I/O) ports, each of which connects to a single
cable as shown in Figure 2.4. Data arriving on an
incoming line is output to all lines except the line
on which the hub receives the data.

Fig 2.5 Hub

● Bridge
A bridge is a multiport device used for connecting two or more local area networks (LAN),
possibly operating at different speeds as shown in Figure 2.5. Thus, a bridge may be used
to produce bigger LAN by combining smaller LANs. A bridge enables devices on one LAN
segment to communicate with the devices on another LAN segment. Unlike hubs, they are

intelligent devices which exercise discretion while forwarding data to the outgoing line
leading to the destination
Fig. 2.5 Bridge
● Switch
Unlike bridges which connect two or more LAN segments, switches are used to connect
individual nodes in the network with each other. Each node within network is connected to
a unique port in the switch as shown in Figure 2.6. On receiving the incoming data frame,
it forwards it to only a single line connecting to the destination node. All the nodes connected
through switch forms only one LAN.

Fig 2.6 Switch

● Router
Routers are used for connecting various networks (LAN or WAN) with each other as shown
in Figure 2.7. A router transmits data from incoming network to another network. A router
maintains a routing table of various networks. Based on the destination address, the router
determines to which network the incoming packet should be transmitted

Fig 2.7 Router

● Gateway
A gateway connects networks based on different protocol technologies to communicate
with each other. Data coming from one network operating on one protocol is converted
according to the protocol of the outgoing network, and then forwarded. Thus a gateway may
be thought of as a router equipped with software for protocol conversion.

2.1.5 Network Types

On the basis of geographical span, network can be broadly categorized as PAN, LAN, MAN,
and WAN.

● Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network
used for communication among computer and devices
close to one person. Some examples of devices
that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers,
fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even
video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and
wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends
to 10 meters.
Fig 2.8 PAN
LAN stands for Local Area Network. Local Area networks are private networks and c an span a
radius of up to 1 Km. They are generally established within a building or campus shown in Figure
2.9. LANs operate at a speed in the range 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps.

Fig 2.9 LAN

● MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. It may be owned by a single organization or
by many individuals or organizations. These networks are used to establish links within a
city, and span an area of radius up to 50 Km. MANs facilitate sharing of resources by
connecting various local area networks (Figure 2.10). For example, a cable television
network within a city.

Fig 2.10 MAN

● WAN stands for Wide Area Network. Typically a WAN spans a segment of about 1000
Km. They are used for long distance communication and are well suited for connecting
remote areas. They establish links within a country or continent. A WAN may be owned
and managed by several organizations. It connects various local and metropolitan area
networks.

Fig 2.11 WAN

2.1.6 Topology
The arrangement (also called layout) of nodes in a network is called network topology.
There are broadly two types of topologies broadcast and point to point. In broadcast
topology, all nodes share the same physical link. When one node transmits, all nodes
receive. Collision may occur when more than one node simultaneously transmits, and there
is a collision resolution mechanism for handling it. Broadcast topologies are mainly bus
and ring. In point to point topology, every pair of nodes has a dedicated link. Popular point
to point topologies are star and mesh.

● Bus Topology
In bus topology, there is a long cable, called backbone cable (or simply backbone), that
connects various nodes through a connector called tap as shown in Figure 2.12. In this, a
message sent by one is received by all devices connected to backbone cable. This topology
requires less cabling and is easy to install and extend the network laid using it. However,
fault detection and isolation is difficult.

Fig 2.12 Bus Topology

● Ring Topology
In ring topology, all the devices are attached through a cable in the form of ring as shown
in Figure 2.13.The message to be communicated is transmitted in one direction, thereby,
relaying the message to the intended recipient. addition and deletion of devices, and fault
detection and isolation is easy. However, the topology suffers from the limitation of single
point failure leading to disruption of the entire network. sending a message from one node
to another node may take more time (four steps while sending message from device A to
device E)

Fig 2.13 Ring Topology

● Star Topology
In star topology, all the devices are connected to the central controller called hub as shown
in Figure 2.14. communication between any two devices takes place through the hub
responsible for relaying messages. star network can be easily installed and configured.
Also, fault detection and isolation is easy. However, it requires more cabling as com pared
to bus and ring topology.also, hub failure will lead to network failure

Fig 2.14 Star Topology

● Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, every node is connected with every other node in the network as shown
in Figure 2.15 Because of dedicated point to point connection between every possible pair
of nodes, the topology provides secure data transfer without any traffic problem. it requires
a large number of connections to establish the topology. This leads to difficulty in installation
as the number of nodes grow as the network grows.

Fig 2.15 Mesh Topology

● Tree Topology

● Fig 2.16 Tree Topology

Tree topology is a hybrid topology using a combination of star and bus topology. Backbone
cable in a bus topology acts like the stem of the tree, and star networks (and even individual
nodes) are connected to the main backbone cable like the branches of tree as shown in
Figure 2.16 damage to a segment of a network laid using tree topology will not affect other
segments. installation and configuration is difficult as compared to other topologies. Also, if
the backbone cable is damaged, the entire network communication is disrupted