ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Module 1
Quantum Mechanics:
de Broglie Hypothesis and Matter Waves, de Broglie wavelength and derivation of expression by analogy, Phase Velocity
and Group Velocity,
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and its application (Non-existence of electron inside the nucleus Non -Relativistic),
Principle of Complementarity,
Wave Function, Time independent Schrödinger wave equation (Derivation), Physical Significance of a wave function and
Born Interpretation, Expectation value, Eigen functions and Eigen Values,
Particle inside one dimensional infinite potential well, Quantization of Energy States, Waveforms and Probabilities.
Numerical Problems
08 Hours
Question Bank
State and explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Show that an electron does not exist inside the
Q.01 a
nucleus on the basis of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.
Statement: “It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum of a particle
accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position of a particle, it leads to large
uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa”.
If ∆ x and
ΔP x are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle then
the uncertainty can be written as
∆x . x ≥ (h/4π) ΔP
In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of the particle, the product of the
corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to or greater than h/4π.

Non- existence of electrons in the atomic nucleus:

According to the theory of relativity, the energy E of a particle is:
mo c 2
E = mc² =
√1−( v 2
/ c 2)
Where ‘m0’ is the rest mass of the particle and ‘m’ is the mass when its velocity is ‘’.
2 4 2 6
2 mo c mo c
i.e. E= = -------------------------- (1)
1−( v 2 / c2 ) 2
c −v
2

If ‘p’ is the momentum of the particle:

mo v
i.e. p = mv =
2
√1−( v
2 2
2
/ c 2)
mo v c
p² = 2 2
c −v
Multiply by c²
2 2 4
mo v c
p²c² = 2 2
-------------------------------------------- (2)
c −v
Subtracting (2) by (1) we have
m2o c 4 ( c 2−v 2 )
E² - p²c² =
c 2−v 2
2 4
E² = p²c² + m o c ------------------------------------------ (3)
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

h
∆ x .Δ P x ≥ ---------------------------------------------- (4)
4π
The diameter of the nucleus is of the order 10-14m. If an electron is to exist inside the nucleus, the
uncertainty in its position ∆ x must not exceed 10-14m.
i.e. ∆ x ≤ 10-14m
The uncertainty in the momentum
−34
h 6.63× 1 0
Δ Px ≥ ≥ ≥ 0.5 × 10-20Ns --------- (5)
4 π Δx 4 π ×1 0−14
The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron
Δ P x ≥ 0.5 × 10-20Ns ------------------------------ (6)
Consider eqn. (3)
E² = p²c² + m 2o c 4 = c² (p²+m 2o c 2)
mo= 9.11 × 10-31 kg
If the electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be
E² ≥ (3 × 108)2[(0.5 × 10-20)2 + (9.11 × 10-31)2(3 × 108)2]
i.e. E² ≥ (3 × 108)2[0.25 × 10-40 + 7.4629 × 10-44]
Neglecting the second term as it is smaller by more than the 3 orders of the magnitude compared to
first term.
Taking square roots on both sides and simplifying
−12
1.5 ×1 0
E ≥ 1.5 × 10-12 J ≥ −19 ev ≥ 9.4 Mev
1.6 ×1 0
If an electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be greater than or equal to 9.4Mev. But kinetic energy of
the electrons in beta decay is of the order of 3 to 4 MeV. This shows that electrons cannot exist in the
nucleus.

b What is wave function? Give its physical significance and properties

Definition: A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function
called wave function. It is denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like properties
of particles. Wave function is obtained by solving Schrodinger equation.
Physical significance of wave function:
1. It gives a statistical relationship between the particle and wave nature.
2. It is a complex quantity and hence it may be positive or negative.
3. It is a function of wave and time coordinate.
4. It describes the behaviour of a single particle or photon and not for number of particles.
It is of probabilistic nature and can be expressed in terms of probability
density.
The acceptable wave function has to possess the following properties:
1) ‘ψ’ is single valued everywhere: The function f( x ) has three values at
x = p. Since f1 ≠ f2 ≠ f3, it is to state that if f( x ) were to be the wave
function. The probability of finding the particle has three different values at
the same location which is not true. Thus, the wave function is not acceptable.
2) ‘ψ’ is finite everywhere: The function f( x ) is not finite at x =R but f( x
)=∞. Thus, it indicates large probability of finding the particle at a location. It
violates uncertainty principle. Thus, the wave function is not acceptable.
3) ‘ψ’ and its first derivatives with respect to its variables are continuous
everywhere: The function f( x ) is truncated at x =Q. the state of the system at
x =Q is not defined. The wave function is not acceptable.
4) For bound states ‘ψ’ must vanish at infinity. If ‘ψ*’ is a complex function, then ψ* ψ must vanish at
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

infinity.
The wave function which satisfies the above 4 properties are called Eigen functions.
An electron is bound in a 1-dimensional potential well of width 1Ao & of infinite height. Find its energy
c
values in eV in the ground state & also in the first two excited states.

Q.02 a Setup time independent Schrodinger wave equation.

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’. The De Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ is
h h
λ= = ----------------------------- (1)
mv P
Where ‘m’ is the momentum of the particle.
The wave eqn. is
i ( kx −ωt )
ψ= A e -------------------------- (2)
Where ‘A’ is a constant and ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of the wave.
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to ‘t’ twice
2
d ψ 2 i ( kx −ωt ) 2
2
=− A ω e =−ω ψ ----------------------------- (3)
dt
The equation of a travelling wave is
2 2
d y 1 d y
2
= 2 2 Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘’ is the velocity.
dx v dt
Similarly for the De Broglie wave associated with the particle
2 2
d ψ 1 d ψ
2
= 2 2 ---------------------------------- (4)
d x v dt
where ‘ψ’ is the displacement at time ‘t’.
From eqns (3) & (4)
2 2
d ψ −ω
2
= 2 ψ
dx v
But ω = 2πυ and v =υ λ where ‘υ’ is the frequency and ‘λ’ is the wavelength.
2 2 2
d ψ −4 π 1 −1 d ψ
2
= 2 ψ or 2 = 2 2 ----------------- (5)
dx λ λ 4π ψ dx
2 2 2
1 2 m v P
K . E= m v = = ------------------------- (6)
2 2m 2m
h2
=
2 mλ 2 ------------------------------------ (7)
Using eqn. (5)

( )
2 2 2 2
h −1 d ψ −h d ψ
K . E= = 2 ------ (8)
2 m 4 π ψ d x 8 π mψ d x 2
2 2

Total Energy E = K.E + P.E

h2 d 2 ψ
E=− 2 +V
8 π mψ dx 2
h2 d 2 ψ
E−V =− 2
8 π mψ dx 2
d2 ψ 8 π2 m
=− ( E−V ) ψ
dx 2 h2

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

2 2
d ψ 8π m (
2
+ 2 E−V ) ψ =0
dx h

Discuss the wave functions, probability densities and energy level for a particle in a box by considering the
b
ground and the first two excited State
Let us consider the most probable location of the particle in the well and its energies for first three cases.
Case I → n = 1
It is the ground state and the
particle is normally present in this state.
The Eigen function is
π
ψ1= D sin a ∵from eqn. (7)
x

ψ1 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a
But ψ1 is maximum when x = a/2.
The plots of ψ1 versus x and | ψ1|2 verses x is shown in the above figure.
|ψ1|2 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and it is maximum for x = a/2. i.e., in ground state the particle cannot be
found at the walls, but the probability of finding it is maximum in the middle.
The energy of the particle at the ground state is
h2
2
E1 = 8 ma = E0

Case II → n = 2
In the first excited state the Eigen function of
this state is
2π
x
ψ2 = D sin a
ψ2= 0 for the values x = 0, a/2, a.
Also, ψ2 is maximum for the values x = a/4
and 3a/4.
These are represented in the graphs.
| ψ2|2 = 0 at x = 0, a/2, a, i.e., particle cannot be found either at the walls or at the centre.
a 3a
|ψ 2|2 = max imum for x= , x=
4 4
The energy of the particle in the first excited state is E2 = 4E0.

Case III → n = 3
In the second excited state,
3π
x
ψ3= D sin a
ψ3 = 0, for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.
ψ3 is maximum for x = a/6, a/2, 5a/6.
These are represented in the graphs.
| ψ3 |2 = 0 for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.

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a a 5a
|ψ 3|2 = maximum for x= , x= , x=
6 2 6
The energy of the particle in the third excited state is E3=9 E0.
c Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron having a kinetic energy of 100 eV
Energy is E=100eV=100×1.6×10−19joule=1.6×10−17Joule
Now its momentum will be p=2√2mE
putting the mass of electron as m=9.1×10−31Kg

we get p=5.4×10−24Kgm/s
The de-broglie wavelength will be given by λ=hp
put the value of Plank's constant as h=6.62×10−34Js and the value of p
we get λ=1.22×10−10m=1.22Ao

Obtain the expression for Eigen value and Eigen function for particle in a box.
(OR)
Starting from Schrodinger time independent wave equation, obtain the expressions for energy eigen values
Q.03 a
and normalized eigen wave function for a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well.
(OR)
Setup time independent Schrodinger wave equation for free particles in one dimension.
Energy Eigen values of a particle in one dimensional, infinite potential well (potential well of infinite
depth) or of a particle in a box.
Let us Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in
one dimension in x -direction between x =0 to x =a. The
potential energy outside this region is infinite and within the
region is 0. The particle is in bound state. Such a configuration
of potential in space is called infinite potential well. It is also
called particle in a box. The Schrödinger equation outside the
well is
d2 ψ 8 π2 m
+ ( E−∞ ) ψ =0
dx 2 h2
∵V = ∞
--------------------- (1)

For outside, the equation holds well if ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0. That is particle cannot be found outside the well and
also at the walls.

The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:

d2 ψ 8 π2 m
∵V = 0
+ Eψ=0
dx 2 h2 ------------------- (2)
2 2
h d ψ
− 2 =Eψ
8 π m dx 2 ------------------------ (3)
This is in the form Ĥψ = Eψ
This is an Eigen-value equation.
8π2m
2
E=k 2
Let h in eqn. (2)
2
d ψ 2
+ k ψ=0
dx 2
The solution of this equation is:
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ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x -------------------------------- (4)

at x =0→ψ=0

∴C=0
0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0

Also x = a → ψ = 0
0 = C cos ka + D sin ka

∴D sin ka = 0 --------------------------------- (5)

But C = 0

D0
i.e., ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (quantum number)
nπ
k = a ------------------------------- (6)
Using this in eqn. (4)
nπ
ψ n =D sin x
a ----------------------------- (7)
Which gives permitted wave functions.
To find out the value of D, normalization of the wave function is to be done.
a
∫|ψ 2n|dx=1
i.e., 0 ----------------------------------- (8)
using the values of ψn from eqn. (7)
a

∫ D2 sin2 nπa x dx=1

( )
0
1−cos 2 θ
∵ sin2 θ =
a
D
2
∫ ¿¿ 2
0

[ ]
a a
D2 2 nπ
2
∫ dx−∫ cos a
xdx =1
0 0

D2
2
x− [
a
2 nπ
sin
2 nπ a
x =1
a 0 ]
D2 2
[ a−0 ]=1⇒ D a=1 ⇒ D= 2
2 2 a √
Hence the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well is:

ψ n=
√ 2
a
sin
nπ
x
a ----------------------------------- (9)

Energy Eigen values:

Energy Eigen values are obtained by operating the wave function ‘ψ’ by the energy operator
(Hamiltonian operator).
h2 d2
− +V
8 π 2 m dx 2
Ĥ=
Inside the well 0 < x < a, V=0
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h2 d2
−
Ĥ= 8 π 2 m dx 2 ----------------------------- (10)
The energy Eigen value eqn. is
Ĥψ=Eψ -------------------------------------- (11)
From equation (10) and (11)
2
h2 d ψ n
− =Eψ
8 π 2 m dx 2
h 2 d 2ψ
− 2 =Eψ n
i.e. 8 π m dx 2 -------------------------------- (12)
It is the Eigen value equation.
Differentiating eqn. (9)

√
dψ n 2 nπ nπ
= cos x
dx a a a
Differentiating again

√(
d2 ψn
dx 2
=−
2 nπ 2
a a )
sin
nπ
a
x

d2 ψn
dx 2
=−
nπ 2
a
ψn ( )
Using this eqn. in (12)
h 2 nπ 2
8π2m a ( )
ψ n=Eψ n

n2 h 2
E=
8 ma 2 ------------------------------- (13)
It gives the energy Eigen values of the particle in an infinite potential well.
n = 0 is not acceptable inside the well because ψ n = 0. It means that the electron is not present inside
the well which is not true. Thus the lowest energy value for n = 1 is called zero point energy value or
ground state energy.
h2
E zero− po int =
i.e., 8 ma 2
The states for which n >1 are called exited states.

b What is wave function, Probability density and normalization of wave function

Wave function: A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function called wave
function. It is denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like properties of particles. Wave function is
obtained by solving Schrodinger equation

Physical significance of wave function:

1. It gives a statistical relationship between the particle and wave nature.
2. It is a complex quantity and hence it may be positive or negative.
3. It is a function of wave and time coordinate.
4. It describes the behaviour of a single particle or photon and not for number of particles.
It is of probabilistic nature and can be expressed in terms of probability density.

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Probability density: If ψ is the wave function associated with a particle, then |ψ|² is the probability of
finding a particle in unit volume. If ‘τ’ is the volume in which the
particle is present but where it is exactly present is not known.
Then the probability of finding a particle in certain elemental
volume dτ is given by |ψ|2dτ. Thus |ψ|² is called probability
density. The probability of finding an event is real and positive
quantity. In the case of complex wave functions, the probability
density is |ψ|² = ψ * ψ where ψ* is Complex conjugate.
Normalization:
The probability of finding a particle having wave function
‘ψ’ in a volume ‘dτ’ is ‘|ψ|²dτ’. If it is certain that the particle is
present in finite volume ‘τ’, then
τ
∫|ψ|² dτ =1
0
∞

If we are not certain that the particle is present in finite volume, then
∫ |ψ|² dτ=1
−∞

∫|ψ|² dτ ≠1
In some case and involves constant.
The result obtained is equated to unity, the constant is to be determined and substituted in the equation for
‘ψ’ which becomes a working equation for the wave function. This process is called normalization.

An electron has a speed of 4.8 x 105 m/s accurate to 0.01%. With what accuracy can be located the position
c
of electron.
According to the Uncertainty principle,
Δx . Δp=h / 4 π
Δx . mΔv=h / 4 π

Δx=h / 4 πmΔv

Δv=4×105m/s (accurate upto 0.01%)

=(100−0.01)/100×4×105m/s = 99.99/4×107m/s

=24.99×10−7m/s

m=9.1×10−31kg, h=6.626×10−34 kgm2/s, π=3.14

−34
6.626 × 10 5
Therefore, Δx= / −7 −31 =0.0023×10
4 × 3.14 ×24.99 ×1 0 × 9.1× 1 0

Q.04 a Derive expression for de Broglie wavelength. Mention different forms for de Broglie wavelength.
De Broglie wavelength:
According to De Broglie’s hypothesis, there is wave associated with the moving particle. Such waves are
called matter waves and wavelength associated with particle is called De-Broglie wavelength.
Expression for De Broglie wavelength:
A particle of mass m moving with a velocity c possess energy given by
E = mc2 (Einstein’s mass energy relation) (1)

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
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According to Planck’s quantum theory the energy of quantum of frequency ‘υ’ is

E = hυ (2) where υ = c/λ
Therefore from (1) and (2)
mc2 = hυ  mc2=h c/λ
hc h
λ= =
mc mc
2
That is
Since velocity of radiation (λ) = velocity of light (c)
The above equation can be written as
h
λ=
mν
This relation is known as De Broglie equation and λ is referred as De Broglie wavelength.

The other forms are

h h
λ= =
√2 meV √2 mE K
1. 226
λ= nm
√V
h
λ=
√3 mkT
b State and explain Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and Principle of Complementarily.
Statement: “It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum of a particle
accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position of a particle, it leads to large
uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa”.
If ∆ x and Δ P x are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle then the
uncertainty can be written as
∆ x . Δ P x ≥ (h/4π)
In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of the particle, the product of the
corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to or greater than h/4π.

Complementarity is an interesting concept that was introduced by Neils Bohr in the year 1928.
 We know that the consequence of the uncertainty principle is both the wave and particle nature of
the matter cannot be measured simultaneously. In other words, we cannot precisely describe the
dual nature of light.
 Now suppose that an experiment is constructed in such a way that it is designed to measure the
particle nature of the matter.
 This implies that, during this experiment, errors of measurement of both position and the time
coordinates must be zero or absent, this in turns explains that the momentum, energy and the wave
nature of the matter are completely unknown. Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring
the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the measurement of the energy and the momentum
will be zero, whereas the position and the time coordinates of the matter will be completely
unknown.
 From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when the particle nature of the matter is
measured or displayed, the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and vice versa. The
inability to observe the wave nature and the particle nature of the matter simultaneously is known
as the complementarity principle.

c A particle of mass 0.5 MeV/C2 has kinetic energy 100eV. Find its de Broglie wavelength, where c is the

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velocity of light.
A particle of mass 0.65 MeV/c2 has kinetic energy 120eV. Find its de Broglie wavelength, where C is the
c
velocity of light.
h
λ= where h is Planck's constant (h = 6.63 x Js).
√2 mE
6 −19
0.65 x 10 x 1.6 x 10 −30
m= =1.155 x 10 Kg
8 2
[ 3 x 10 ]
−19 −17
E=120 x 1.6 x 10 =1.92 x 10
−34
6.63 x 10
λ=
√2 x 1.155 x 10−30 x 1.92 x 10−17
λ=0.0995 nm

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Problems
c. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron with a kinetic energy of 1.5eV.

In a measurement of position and momentum that involved an uncertainty of 0.003%, the speed of an
c. electron was found to be 800m/s. Calculate the corresponding uncertainty that arises in determining its
position.
uncertainty in measurement=0.003 %
speed of electron(v)=800 m/s
0.003
uncertainty in speed (Δ v) = ×800 =0.024 m/s
100

Δ𝑥.Δ𝑝≥ℎ/4𝜋
according to uncertainty principle

Δ𝑥.𝑚Δ v≥ℎ/4𝜋

𝑚=9.1×10−31𝑘𝑔, ℎ=6.63×10−34𝐽/𝑠, m=9.1×10−31kg,

and

Δ𝑥=ℎ/4𝜋𝑚Δv

Δ𝑥=6.63×10−34/[4𝜋×9.1×10−31×0.024Δx=4π×9.1×10−31×0.0246.6×10−34]
−34
6.63 x 10
Δx= −31
4 π ×9.1 ×10 ×0.024
Δ𝑥=0.0024𝑚, so uncertainty in position is 0.0024 m .

Calculate the energy in first two energy states for an electron in one dimensional infinite potential well of
c.
width 1nm.
The eigenvalue of energy when the particle is in the least energy state (n = 1),

The correct answer is: 37.62 eV

An electron and a photon each have same de-Broglie wavelength of 10 Å. Find the kinetic energy of
c.
electron and energy of photon.

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Module – 2
Electrical Properties of Solids:
Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals: Assumptions, Fermi-energy, Fermi factor, Variation of Fermi Factor with
Temperature and Energy, Mention of expression for electrical conductivity.
Dielectric Properties: Polar and non-polar dielectrics, Electrical Polarization Mechanisms, Internal fields in solid,
Clausius- Mossotti equation (Derivation), Solid, Liquid and Gaseous dielectrics. Application of dielectrics in transformers,
Capacitors, Electrical Insulation. Numerical Problems.
Superconductivity:
Introduction to Superconductors, Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner’s Effect, Critical Field, Temperature
dependence of Critical field, Types of Super Conductors, BCS theory (Qualitative), High Temperature superconductivity,
SQUID, MAGLEV, Numerical problems.

Explain the dependence of resistance on temperature of a superconductor? Describe Type I and type
Q. 03 a
II superconductors
The most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that electrical
resistivity of metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature.
This zero resistivity or infinite conductivity is known as
superconductivity. (The temperature depends on the substance).
Temperature at which transition takes place is known as transition
temperature or critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition
temperature, the substance is in the normal state and below it will be in superconducting
state.
Dependence of ρ on T
“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero
below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and threshold
temperature is called “critical temperature.”

There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.
Type-I superconductors:
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect.
Below the critical field it behaves as perfect diamagnet. If the
external magnet field increases beyond H c the superconducting
specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux
penetrates and resistance increase from zero to some value. As the
critical field is very low for type-I superconductors, they are not used
in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.

Dependance of Magnetic Moment on H

Type-II superconductors
Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states
1) Superconducting state
2) Mixed state
3) Normal state
They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic field
completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between H c1 and Hc2 the flux starts penetrating
throughout the specimen. This state is called vortex state. H c2 is 100 times higher than Hc1. At Hc2 the
flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor. Type-II superconductors are used in the
manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high magnetic fields above 10 Tesla.
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b Derive Clausius Mossotti equation.

Consider an elemental solid dielectric material of dielectric constant
ε r . If N is the no. of atoms per
unit volume of the material, μ is the dipole moment, then
Dipolemoment /unitvolume=Nμ
We know that
μ=α E
e i,
Hence, Dipolemoment /unitvolume=N α e Ei−−−−−−( 1 )
Also Dipolemoment /unitvolume= p the polarization
Then equation (1) becomes
P
⇒ E i= −−−−−−( 2 )
p=Nα e E i Nα e
P
⇒ E= −−−−−−( 3)
P=ε 0 ( ε r −1 ) E ε 0 ( ε r −1 )
Also,
P
Ei =E+ −−−−−−(4 )
The internal field in case of 3-dimensional is given as
3 ε0
Substituting (2) and (3) in (4),
P
=
P P 1
=
1 1
+
Nα e ε 0 ( ε r −1 ) + 3 ε 0 ⇒ Nα e ε 0 ε r −1 3
1
[ ]
1
=
1 3+ ε r −1
Nα e 3 ε 0 ε r −1 [
⇒
1
=
1 ε r +2
Nα e 3 ε 0 ε r −1 ] [ ]
Nα e ε r −1
∴ =
3 ε 0 ε r +2
The above relation is called Clausius Mossotti equation. The equation holds good for crystals of
high degree of symmetry.

Show that the sum of the probability of Occupancy of an energy state at ∆E below Fermi level and
c
that at ∆E above Fermi level is unity.
When the temperature is greater than 0K, the materials will receive
thermal energy from its surroundings. At room temperature, the
available thermal energy is small and therefore the electrons
occupying energy levels below the E F level can’t absorb the thermal
energy due to non-availability of higher energy levels. But this
energy can be absorbed by the electrons occupying energy levels
which are just below the fermi level. Because there are large
numbers of unoccupied energy levels just above the fermi level to
which electrons can get excited. Though these excitations seem to
be random, the occupation of various energy levels obeys a
statistical distribution law called fermi-Dirac distribution law.
The probability of finding an electron having any particular value me energy E, at a temperature T is
given by fermi-Dirac probability distribution function.

1
∴ f(E) = ( E −Ef ) / KT
e +1

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where f(E) is called fermi factor, (and the expression describes how energy is distributed among the
electrons).
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in a thermal
equilibrium.
Case 1) Probability of occupation at T>0 and E<EF
We know that e ( E− Ef ) / KT +1 = 0 -------------- (1)
Substitute the above condition in (1) we get,
1 1
f(E) = −∞ = =1
1+ e 1
∴ f(E) = 1 for E<EF.
i.e, all the energy levels between zero is Ef are occupied.
Case 2) Probability of occupation at T>0 and E>Ef
1 1 1
f(E) = ∞ = = =0
1+ e 1+ ∞ ∞
.'. f(E) = 0.
i.e. There are no electrons having energy greater than Ef. i.e, all the energy levels above Ef are vacant.
Case 3) The probability of occupation, for T>0 and E=Ef
1 1 1
e ( E− Ef ) / KT =1, f(E) = 0 = = = 0.5
1+ e 1+ 1 2
i.e, At any temperature above absolute zero, the fermi-dirac distribution function is continuous. The
probability of occupancy of fermi level at any temperature other than OK is 0.5. This fact may be
used for de fining fermi level.
Mention any three assumptions of quantum free electron theory? Discuss the dependence of Fermi
Q.04 a
factor on temperature and Consequent effect on probability of occupation of energy levels
After the development of quantum mechanics, the free electron theory was proposed by
Sommerfeld and he treated electrons quantum mechanically and included the effects of Pauli’s
exclusion principle. He proposed a new theory known as quantum free electron theory, which is
based on the following assumptions. (Any Three)
1) The energy levels of the free electrons are quantized.
2) The free electrons obey the Pauli's exclusion principle.
3) The distribution of electrons in various energy levels obeys the fermi-dirac quantum statics.
4) Free electrons have the same P-energy within the metal because the pot-field due to the ion cores
is uniform throughout the metal.
5) Both the attraction between the electrons and the lattice points. And the repulsion between the
electrons themselves are neglected is therefore electrons are treated free

When the temperature is greater than 0K, the materials will receive
thermal energy from its surroundings. At room temperature, the
available thermal energy is small and therefore the electrons
occupying energy levels below the EF level can’t absorb the thermal
energy due to non-availability of higher energy levels. But this energy
can be absorbed by the electrons occupying energy levels which are
just below the fermi level. Because there are large numbers of
unoccupied energy levels just above the fermi level to which electrons
can get excited. Though these excitations seem to be random, the
occupation of various energy levels obeys a statistical distribution law
called fermi-Dirac distribution law.
The probability of finding an electron having any particular value me energy E, at a temperature T is
given by fermi-Dirac probability distribution function.

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1
∴ f(E) = ( E −Ef ) / KT
e +1

where f(E) is called fermi factor, (and the expression describes how energy is distributed among the
electrons).
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in a thermal
equilibrium.
Case 1) Probability of occupation at T>0 and E<EF
We know that e ( E− Ef ) / KT +1 = 0 -------------- (1)
Substitute the above condition in (1) we get,
1 1
f(E) = −∞ = =1
1+ e 1
∴ f(E) = 1 for E<EF.
i.e, all the energy levels between zero is Ef are occupied.
Case 2) Probability of occupation at T>0 and E>Ef
1 1 1
f(E) = ∞ = = =0
1+ e 1+ ∞ ∞
.'. f(E) = 0.
i.e. There are no electrons having energy greater than Ef. i.e, all the energy levels above Ef are vacant.
Case 3) The probability of occupation, for T>0 and E=Ef
( E− Ef ) / KT 1 1 1
e =1, f(E) = 0 = = = 0.5
1+ e 1+ 1 2

i.e, At any temperature above absolute zero, the fermi-dirac distribution function is continuous. The
probability of occupancy of fermi level at any temperature other than 0K is 0.5. This fact may be
used for de fining fermi level.
b Explain the construction and working of MAGLEV vehicle.
The Construction and working of Magnetically Levitated Vehicles (Maglev vehicles):
Magnetically levitated vehicles are called Maglev
vehicles. The magnetic levitation is based on the
principle of Meissner effect. The magnetic field is
produced by the superconducting magnet and
electric current. The super conducting magnet is
kept inside the vehicle and the electric current is in
the Aluminium guide way. The vehicle is on the
Aluminium guide way. The vehicle is provided with
retractable wheels. The vehicle runs on the guide way, once it is levitated in air the wheels are
retracted into the body. The height to which the vehicle is levitated above guideway is about 10 to
15cm. While stopping, the wheels are drawn out and the vehicle slowly settles on the guide way by
running a distance.
The dielectric constant of helium gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the electronic polarizability of
c
the atoms if helium gas contains 2.7 x 10 25 atoms/ m3.

Q. 03 a What is superconductivity? Outline, qualitatively the BCS theory of superconductivity.

The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero
below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity.
Three scientist Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of
superconductivity based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a quantum

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mechanical concept.
When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion core of lattice,
due to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its position, which is called lattice
distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in a term called Phonons. Now an electron which
comes near that place will interact with the distorted lattice. This tends to reduce the energy of the
electron. It is equivalent to interaction between the two electrons through the lattice. This leads to
the formation of cooper pairs. “Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction
between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon field”. According to quantum
mechanics a cooper pair is treated as single entity. A wave function is associated with each cooper
pair. This holds good over a large volume with finite value for its amplitude. The wave function of
similar cooper pairs overlaps. For one cooper pair overlapping may extend over 10 6 other pairs.
Thus it covers entire volume of the superconductor. It leads to union of large number of cooper
pairs. The resistance encountered by any single cooper pair is overcome by combined action of
other pairs in the union.
When the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter any
scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words conductivity becomes infinity which
is called as super conductivity.
In super conducting state electron-phonon interaction is stronger than the coulomb force of
attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice points. They travel freely without
slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due to this they do not possess any electrical
resistivity

b What is polarisation? Describe the different polarisation mechanism.

the materials which have the ability to form electrical dipole with the aid of which electric field
the basis of dielectric material as well direction of applied electric field the polarization of a
dielectric has been classified as
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational polarization
polarization( e ) :
α
1. Electronic the
electronic polarization occurs due to slight
displacement of electrons in the orbit in
presence of applied electric field. This
produces a polarization in all direction of
the materials. In this phenomenon there is
no lag or loss in electrons and occurs at
frequencies which are resonant with
electron transition energies.
The relation for electronic polarization (
αe )
for rare gas atom is
ε 0 ( ε r −1 )
α e=
N where N is number of atoms per unit volume
2. Ionic polarization( i ) : Ionic polarization occurs in
α
those dielectric materials which possess ionic bond
such as in NaCl. When these ionic solids are
subjected to an external field the adjacent ion of
opposite sign undergo displacement. The
displacement causes an increase or decrease in the
distance of separation between the atoms depending
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
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upon the location of the ion pair in the lattice. As a result the dipole moment due to the shifting
of electron clouds relative to the nuclei. Ionic polarization extremely dependent on frequency as
well according to the charge, mass and inter atomic forces.
3. Orientation polarization( 0 ) : This type of polarization occurs in those dielectric materials
α
which possess molecules with permanent dipole
moment either in solid or liquid. The orientation of
those molecules will be random normally due to
thermal agitation. Because of randomness the net
dipole moment is zero. In presence of field the dipole
undergoes rotation along the direction of electric
field. After this rotation the randomness vanishes
hence material itself develops electrical polarization.
The orientation polarization is strongly temperature dependent and decreases with increase in
temperature.
α
In case of polar dielectrics, the orientation polarizability 0 is written as
μ2
α 0=
3 kT
where μ is permanent dipole moment; k is Boltzmann constant; T is temperature
Then the total polarizationα of a material is estimated by taking sum of all polarization. That is
α =α e + α i + α 0
In these polarization
α e and α i are not temperature sensitive

If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000 V/m and the resulting polarization is 4.3 x
c
10 -8 C/m2.Calculate the dielectric constant of NaCl.

Discuss the solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics with one example each. Explain the role of
Q.04 a
dielectrics as a electrical insulator.
Many Electrical appliances are made by using suitable dielectrics that have long life, reliable,
trouble free, stores charge and provide electrical insulation. During manufacturing process insulators
are subjected to thermal, mechanical and electrical stress by subjecting to the respective field. The
dielectric material in use has a threshold field beyond which it suffers a dielectric breakdown beyond
which it can no more be an insulator. Organic dielectrics are sensitive to temperature.
Solid Insulating material: Mica, glass, plastic etc are inorganic; rubber, cloth, paper etc are organic.
Liquid Insulating material: transformer oil, silicon fluids, viscous Vaseline, fluoro organic fluids
are mainly used in transformers, switches, circuit breakers etc. to cool faster and transmit the eddy
heating and joule heating.
Gaseous Insulating material: air, CO2, hydrogen, inert gas etc. air provides the insulation between
the overhead transmission power lines.

Other applications of dielectrics:

1) In storing the charges and to increase the capacitance of a capacitor.
ε
2) Glass with r =3.7 to 10 is used in manufacturing electronic valves, X ray tubes and bulb
envelops.
3) Mica is used in electrical machines, switch gears, armature welding and in hot plates.
4) Rubber is used in making electric wires, cables and taps.
5) Asbestos sheet is used in electric iron.

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Importance of Dielectrics in transformers: A transformer consists of two insulated conducting

coils wounded on insulating core. In case of high voltage transformers, the insulation is required to
provide between individual windings in the coils and also between the core and the coils. Hence
their size grows. The size of the transformer increases also with operational A.C. frequency. The
insulation is provided by using paper, mica or cloth. The paper is impregnated with varnish or wax
to fill the air gaps. If there are air gaps trapped, gets ionizes due to air has less permittivity leading to
excessive heating which damage insulation. This effect is called corona. To avoid corona effect mica
will be used. However, when the operating voltage cross 3kV and above, a kind of oil called transfer
oil is used. It is based on mineral oil. This oil has a capability to guard corona effect up to about
100kV and helps to keep the transformer cool. Further, in large transformers that are used for high
voltage transmission lines water is circulated round the body of the transformer.
b What are SQUIDS? Explain briefly the working of SQUID.
The term stands for Super conducting Quantum Interference Device. It is an instrument used to
measure extremely weak magnetic field of the order of 10-13 T. Hence it is a sensitive
magnetometer. Heart of the SQUID is a super conducting ring containing one or more Josephson
junctions. Two types of SQUIDS are available namely DC SQUID and RF SQUID. It works on the
principle of Josephson effect.
DC SQUID
When current I flows through the point C, it divides into I1 and I2 Cross Sectional. Hence the wave
function due to these super currents (cooper pairs) experience a phase shift at P and Q. It has two
Josephson junctions connected in parallel and works on the interference of current from two
junctions. It works on the principle of DC Josephson effect which is the phenomenon of flow of
super current through the junction even in the absence of external emf. In the absence of applied
magnetic field, the phase difference between the wave functions is zero. If the magnetic field is
applied perpendicular to the current loop, then phase
difference between the
wave functions will not be
zero. This is identified by
the sum of the currents I1’
and I2’. The magnitude of
phase difference is
proportional to applied
magnetic field. Hence,
even if there is a weak magnetic field in the region will be
detected. DC SQUIDs are widely used for a variety of applications, including in geophysics,
biomagnetism, and materials science.
RF SQUID
It works on the principle of AC Josephson effect - When dc
voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, it leads to
the development of oscillating current. It has single
Josephson Junction. Magnetic field is applied perpendicular
to the plane of the current loop.
The flux is coupled into a loop containing a single
Josephson Junction through an input coil and an RF source.
Hence when the RF current changes, there is corresponding
change in the flux linked with the coil. This variation is very
sensitive and is measured. It is also used in the detection of
low magnetic field. It is less sensitive compared to DC Squid. Due to its low-cost manufacturing, it
is commonly used SQUID in many applications. RF SQUIDs are used in applications that require
high-frequency measurements, such as in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
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At 6 K critical field is 5x103 A/m. Calculate the transition temperature when critical magnetic field
c
is 2x104 A/m at 0 K.

Solve the polarization produced in crystal by an electric field of strength 500vm -1, if it has a
c
dielectric constant of 6.

Calculate the probability of an electron occupying and energy level 0.02eV above the fermi level at
c
200K and 400K

LASER and Optical fiber

1.Mention the Characteristics of laser beam. Derive the expression for energy density of radiation using
Einstein’s Coefficients
Consider two energy state E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N 1 be the atoms with energy E1 and N 2 be the atoms with
energy E2 per unit volume of the system. N 1and N 2 called the number density of atoms in the state 1 and 2 respectively.
In case of induced adsorption
The rate of absorption is directly propotional to the number density of lower energy state N 1 and the energy density is U γ
∴ Rate of absorption α N 1 U γ
orRateofabsorption=B12 N 1 U γ … … … ( 1 )
Where, B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein co efficient of induced absorption
In case of spontaneous emission
The rate of spontaneous emission is directly propotional to the number density of higher energy state N 2
∴ Rate of absorption α N 2
orRateofabsorption= A 21 N 2 … … … ( 2 )
Where, A21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein co efficient of spontaneous emission
In case of stimulated emission
The rate of stimulated emission is directly propotional to the number density of higher energy state N 2 and the energy
density U γ

∴ Rate of stimulated emission α N 2 U γ

orRateof stimulatedemission=B21 N 2 U γ … … … ( 3 )
At thermal equilibrium
Rate of absorption=stimulated emission+ spontaneous emission
∴ ¿ Eqn. ( 1 ) , ( 2 )∧( 3 ) , We have
B12 N 1 U γ = A21 N 2+ B21 N 2 U γ

B12 N 1 U γ −B21 N 2 U γ = A21 N 2

(B ¿ ¿ 12 N 1−B 21 N 2)U γ= A 21 N 2 ¿
A 21 N 2
U γ=
(B ¿ ¿12 N 1−B21 N 2 )¿
Rearranging the above equation, we get

[ ]
A21 1
U γ= … … … ( 4)
B 21 B12 N 1
−1
B21 N 1

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According to Boltzmann’s law

N 2 −¿¿¿ ¿
=e
N1

N 2 −hγ
=e KT
N1
hγ
N1 KT
=e … … … . ( 5 )
N2

N2
Substitute the value from equation (5) in equation (4), it becomes
N1

[ ]
A 1
U γ= 21 hγ
… … … (6 )
B 21 B12 KT
e −1
B21
According to Planck’s law

[ ]
3
8 πh γ 1
U γ= 3 hγ
… … … (7 )
c KT
e −1

Comparing equation (6) and (7)

A 21 8 πh γ 3
= 3
B21 c

B12
=1∨B12=B21
B 21

Put A 21= A∧B 21=B then density ( equation … .6 ) become

U γ=
A
B KT hγ
e −1
1
[ ]
This is the energy density at thermal equilibrium condition
… … … ( 8)

2.What are semiconductor diode lasers?

Describe the construction and working of
Semiconductor laser with the help of
energy band diagram
A Semiconductor diode laser is one in
which the active medium is formulated by
semiconducting materials.

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 Construction: Gallium-Arsenide Laser is a single crystal of GaAs consists of heavily doped n-type and p-type.
 The diode is very small size with sides of the order of 1mm. The width of the junction varies from 1-100μm.
 The top and bottom surfaces are metalized and Ohmic contacts are provided for external connection. The front
and rear faces are polished.
 The polished faces functions as the resonant cavity. The other two faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in
that direction.

The energy band diagram of heavily doped p-n junction is as shown. At thermal equilibrium the Fermi level is uniform.

• Because of very high doping on n- side, the Fermi level is pushed in to the conduction band and electrons occupy the
portions of the conduction band that lies below the Fermi level and on p-side, the Fermi level lies within the valence band
and holes occupy the portions of the valence band that lies above the Fermi level.

• A suitable forward bias is applied to overcome the potential barrier. As a result, electrons from n-region and holes from
p-region injected into the junction.

• The current begins to flow following which there will be a region in junction in which the population inversion can be
achieved.

• Initially concentration of electrons in the energy levels at the bottom of the conduction band will be less than that of
energy levels at top of valence band. So that the recombination of electrons and holes result only in spontaneous emission
then junction works as LED.
• When the current exceeds the threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the active region which is formulated
in the junction.

• At this stage the photons emitted by spontaneous emission triggers stimulated emission, over a large number of
recombination leading to build up laser.

• Since the energy gap of GaAs is 1.4eV, the wavelength of emitted light is 8400 Ȧ

3.Discuss the requisites of a Laser system

1) The pumping process:
It is the process of supplying energy to the medium in order to
transfer it to the state of population inversion is known as
pumping process
Optical Pumping: It is the process of exciting atoms from lower
energy level to higher energy level by using high intensity light
or by operating flash tube as an external source called optical
pumping.
Electrical pumping: It is the process of exciting atoms from
lower energy level to higher energy level by using dc power
supply as an external source called electrical pumping.

2) Active medium. A medium in which light gets amplified is

known an active medium. The medium may be solid, liquid or a gas. Out of the different atoms in the medium, only a
small fraction of atoms of particular species are responsible for stimulated emission and consequent light amplification.
They are called active centres. The remaining bulk of the active medium acts the role host which supports active centres.

3) Laser cavity:
A laser device consists of an active medium bound between two parallel mirrors of high reflectivity. The mirrors reflect
the photon to and fro through the active medium. Thus the two mirrors along with the medium is called cavity. Inside the
cavity two types of waves exist, one moving towards the right and other to the left. These waves interfere constructively
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or destructively depending on the phase difference. In order to arrange for constructive interference, the distance ‘L’
λ
between the two mirrors should be such that the cavity should support an integral number of half wavelength, i.e. L=m
2
where m is an integer. This results in the amplification of stimulated emission of radiation which is the laser light.

4.Describe the application of Laser as Range finder and Laser Printer

Laser as Range Finder
I. Laser range-finder in defence:
 The operational principle of a laser range-finder is
similar to conventional radar.
 The directionality property of laser light makes it an
ideal device for ranging purpose. In defence, it is very
important to know accurate location of targeted enemy
distance to have the first hit chance. This will acquire
only position of enemy without personal details. The
laser range-finders are best handheld equipment for modern infantry in defence sector.
 The distance obtained from this range-finder will have less than 1% error as compare to actual distance
of enemy. This can also be used for continuous tracking and ranging of missiles as well as aircrafts from
ground or air.
Working:
 High powered pulsed Nd-YAG solid state laser flash towards the targeted enemy from a
transmitter. The incident pulses on target surface are narrow with high power. Which will
reflect from target surface and part of reflected beam is known as echo signal.
 These echo signals enter in to a receiver, there will be an interference filter. This
interference filter is narrow band optical filter tuned to the frequency of the laser light,
due to that all other background noise having other frequency entering the receiver will
be neglected.
 Further, the signal is amplified by using a photomultiplier. The distance of the target is
estimated in range-finder by using high speed clock.
 It measures the exact time from the instant the pulses left the unit until they returned and
converts this data into distance.

Laser Printer
Laser printers ware invented at XEROX in 1969 by
re- searcher Gary Stark weather .Laser Printers are digital

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printing devices that are used to create high quality text and graphics on plain printer. A Diode Laser is used in
the process of printing in LASER Printer.
Working Principle
1. A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged rotating Photo
sensitive drum coated with selenium.

2. Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from the areas which are exposed to light and the area gets
positively charged.

3. Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum’s charged areas, which have been exposed to
light.

4. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the ink to the paper.

Advantages of Laser Printer

 The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high quality graphics &
text.
 Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
 Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
 They are also capable to produce colour prints.
Disadvantages of Laser Printer
 The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as compared to other printers.
 The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
 Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the atmosphere.

5.Derive an expression for angle of acceptance in an optical fiber with the help of a neat diagram.
Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ1’ be the angle of refraction for the ray OB.
The refracted ray OB incident at a critical angle (90 ̊- θ1) at B grazes the interface between core and cladding along BC. If
the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it undergoes total internal reflection. Thus θ0 is called the waveguide
acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical aperture.

Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively.
Applying Snell’s law at
O, n 0 sin θ0 = n1 sin θ1

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n1
sin θ0 = sin θ1 … … … … … … .. ( 1 )
n0
Applying Snell’s la B, The angle of indices is 90−θ1 The angle of refraction is 90 0
n1 sin (90-θ1) = n2 sin90
n1 cos θ1= n2
n2
cos θ 1= … … … … … … .. ( 2 )
n1

From expression (1)

n1
sin θ0 = sinθ 1
n0

n1
sin θ0 =
n0
√ 1−cos 2 θ 1
Substituting for cos θ1 from (2) we get

√( )
2
n1 n2
sin θ0 = 1−
n0 n1

√√
2 2
n1 n 1−n2
sin θ0 = 2
n0 n1
n21 −n22
sin θ0 =
n0
If the surrounding medium is air, then n 0=1
sin θ0 =√ n21−n22 … … … … .. ( 3 )
Where sin θ0 is called Numerical aperture

N . A=√ n1−n2
2 2

6.Explain the different types of optical fibers with the help of suitable diagrams.

Based on the refractive index profile and mode of

propagation, There are three types of optical fibers,
1. Single mode fiber
2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber
(i) Single mode fiber
• Single mode fibers have a core material of uniform
refractive index value.

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• Cladding material also has a uniform refractive index but of lesser value than that of core.
• Thus its refractive index profile takes a shape of a step. The diameter of the core is about 8-10 µm and the diameter of
the cladding is about 60-70 µm.
• Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in above figure.
• Single mode fibers are the extensively used ones
ant they are less expensive. They need LASERs as
the source of light.
(ii) Step index multimode fiber
• A step index multimode fiber is very much
similar to the single mode fiber except that its core
is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a core
diameter 50 to 200 µm and a cladding about 100 to
250µm outer diameter.
• Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a
single mode fiber but with a larger plane region for
the core.
• Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a
number of modes of wave
• The step index multimode fiber can accept
either a LASER or an LED as source of light.
• It is the least expensive of all and its typical
application is in data links which has lower bandwidth requirements.
(iii) Graded index multimode fiber
• It is also called GRIN.
• The refractive index of core decreases in the radially outward
direction from the axis of the fiber and becomes equal to that of
cladding at the interface but the refractive index of the cladding
remains uniform.
• Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
• It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunk between
central offices.

7. What is attenuation? Discuss the various factors which cause attenuation in optical fiber communication.
• Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through a fiber also called as the
fiber loss.

α=
−10
L
log [ ]
Pout
P¿
db / km
• There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place. Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
(i)Absorption losses
• Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica glass of
which the fiber is made of.
• During signal propagation photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms and the electrons are excited to higher
energy levels.
• Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light energy.
• The re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength; hence it is referred as loss of energy.
• The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions which enters into the fiber at the time of fabrication causes significant
absorption loss.

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• The absorption of photons by fiber itself assuming that there are no impurities and in-homogeneities in it is called as
intrinsic absorption.
(ii) Scattering losses
• Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium having scattering objects whose
dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of light.
• Similarly when a light signal travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered due to the sharp changes in refractive
index values inside the core over distances and also due to the structural impurities present in the fiber material.
• This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of photons also takes place due to trapped gas bubbles
which are not dissolved at the time of manufacturing.
• A scattered photon moves in random direction and leaves the fiber.
(iii) Radiation losses
Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.
Macroscopic bending:
All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that
specification of radius of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the condition of
total internal reflection. This causes loss of optical power

7.Discuss the point-to-point communication using an optical fibre with the help of a block diagram.

Optical fiber

communication process : The communication using Optical fiber is as follows. First voice is converted into electrical
signal using a transducer. It is digitized using a Coder. The digitized signal, which carries the voice information, is fed to
an optical transmitter. The light source in optical transmitter (LED or LASER Diode) emits modulated light, which is
transmitted through the optical fiber. At the other end the modulated light signal is detected by a photo detector and is
decoded using a decoder. Finally the information is converted into analog electrical signal and is fed to a loud speaker,
which converts the signal to voice (sound).
8.Define LASER and explain interaction of radiation with the matter for induced absorption, spontaneous
emission and stimulated emission

Interaction of an electromagnetic wave with matter

leads to transition of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the transition is from lower state to higher
state it absorbs the incident energy. If the transition is from higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.
Emission or Absorption takes through quantum of energy called photons. hʋ is called quantum energy or photon energy.
−34
h=6.643 ×10 Joules Second is Planck’s constant and ‘ʋ’ is the frequency.
If ΔE is the difference between the two energy levels ∆ E=E2− E1
According to Max Planck, ∆ E=hv= E2−E1
Three types of interactions, which are possible, are as follows:

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1) Induced Absorption:
“The process in which an atom in a lower energy state is
raised to a high energy state by absorbing a suitable photon is
called stimulated absorption.”
Consider two energy states with energies E1∧E 2. Let a
photon of energy, ∆ E=E2− E1be incident on the atom. The
atom absorbs the energy of the photon and its energy
becomes equal to∆ E+ E1=E2 . Hence it makes a transition
to the exitedstate E2 . This is called induced absorption.
Induced absorption can be represented as
atom + photon → atom*
2) Spontaneous Emission:
“The process in which an atom in the higher energy state falls
to the lower state by emitting a photon on its own is called
spontaneous emission.”
Consider an atom in the excited state, the atom voluntarily
emits a photon of energy ∆E equal to E2− E1 and falls to the
energy state E1. The emission where an atom emits a photon
without any aid by external agency is called spontaneous
emission. The photons emitted may have any direction and
phase.
Hence, they are incoherent.
This process can be represented as atom*→ atom + photon
3) Stimulated Emission:
“The process of the emission of a photon by a system under
the influence of an incident photon of suitable energy, due to
which the system transits from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state is called stimulated emission.”
Consider an atom in the exited state with energy E2. Let a
photon of energy∆ E=E2− E1 interacts with this atom. As a result,
the atom emits a photon and transits to the lower energy state. The
emitted photon will have same phase, energy and direction of
movement as that of the incident photon.”
The electromagnetic waves associated with the two photons will
have same phase and thus they are coherent. This kind of emission is
responsible for laser action. This process can be represented as
atom* + photon→ atom + 2 photon

Numerical problems

1.An optical fibre of length 2 km has input power of 200 mW, which emerges out with power of 160 mW.
Calculate the attenuation co-efficient of the Fiber.
Given data: L=2km P¿ =200 mW Pout =160 mW α =?
Solution:

α=
−10
L
log [ ]
Pout
P¿
db / km

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Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

[ ]
−3
−10 160 ×10
α= log −3
db / km α =0.485
2 200 ×10

2. In diffraction grating experiment the LASER light undergoes first order diffraction with diffracting angle
23.86°. The grating constant is 1.66 ×10−6 m Calculate the wavelength of LASER source.
Given data: θ=23.86 D=1.66 × 10−6 m m=1 λ=?
Solution:
D sinθ
λ=
m
−6
1.66× 10 si n ( 23.86 ) −7
λ= λ=6.714 × 10 m
1
3.The ratio of population inversion of two energy levels is 1.059 ×10−30 Find the wavelength of Light emitted by
spontaneous emissions at 330K.
Given data:
N2 −30
ratio of population inversion ( ¿=1.059 × 10 T=330K λ=?
N1
Solution:
−hc
N 2 −hc N 2 −hc λ=
=e λkT By simplification ln = N2
N1 N 1 λkT ln kT
N1

−( 6.63 ×10−34 )( 3× 108 )

λ= =632 nm
ln ( 1.059 ×10 ) ( 1.38 ×10−23) ( 330 )
−30

4. The angle of acceptance of an optical fibre is 30°, when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when it is in a
medium of refractive index 1.33.
I I
refractive index of refractive medium:n 0=1.33 θ0 :?
angle of acceptance of an optical fiber = θ0 =30

Solution :

sin θ =
√n −n 2
1
2
2
When surrounding medium is air n 0=1 and θ0 =30
0
n0

√ n −n =sin 30 ( 1 )
2
1
2
2 √ n −n =0.5
2
1
2
2

I
When surrounding medium is of refractive index 1.33 letθ0 be acceptance angle
I
θ0 =sin
−1
( 1.33
0.5
)=22
5. In a diffraction grating experiment the laser light undergoes second order diffraction for diffraction angle 1.48.
The grating constant is 5.08 ×10−5 m and the distance between the grating and the source is 80 cm, find the wave
length of LASER light.
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

−5
Given data: θ=1.48 D=5.08 × 10 mm=2 f =80 cm λ=?
Solution :
D sinθ
λ=
m
−5
5.08× 10 si n ( 1.48 )
λ= λ=656 nm
2
6. A LASER source has a power output of 10−3 W. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second given the
wavelength of LASER 692.8 nanometer.
Given data:
power out: 10−3
wavelength of LASER λ : 692.8nm = 692 ×10−9
number of photons emitted per second( N)=?
Solution:
hc ( 6.63 ×10 ) ( 3 × 10 )
−34 8
−16
∆ E=hv= = −9
=2.874 × 10
λ 692 ×10

The energy difference become the energy of each of the emitted photon if N is the number of photons emitted per second
to give a power output of 10−3
−3
N × ∆ E=10
−3
10 12
N= −16
=3.47 ×10
2.874 × 10

7. Obtain the attenuation co-efficient of the given fiber of length 1500 m given the input and output power 100
mW and 70 mW.
Given data: L=1500m=1.5km P¿ =100 mW Pout =70 mW α =?
Solution :

α=
−10
L
log[ ]
Pout
P¿
db / km

α=
−10
1.5
log
[ ]
70 ×10−3
100 ×10−3
db / km α =1.03

8. Given the Numerical Aperture 0.30 and RI of core 1.49 Calculate the critical angle for the core-cladding
interface.
Given data: NA:0.30 n1=1.49 θ0 =?

Solution: sin θ0 =
√n −n
2
1
2
2
n0

√ n −n =NA
2
1
2
2 0.30=√ 1.492−n22 SBS n2 =1.45θ c =sin
−1
( )
n2
n1
θc =sin−1 ( 1.45
1.49 )
=76.6

9. Calculate the ratio of population for a given pair of energy levels corresponding to emission of radiation 694.3
nm at a temperature of 300 K.

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N2
Given data: ratio of population inversion ( ¿=? T=300K λ=694.3 nm
N1
Solution:
N 2 −hc
=e λkT By simplification
N1

(6.63 × 10−34) (3 × 108 )

N 2 ( 694.3× 10
30
−9
=1.11 ×10
) ( 1.38 ×10−23 ) ( 300 )
=e
N1

10. Find attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m when a light signal of power 100mw emerges out of the
fiber with a power of 90mw
Given data: L=500m=0.5km P¿ =100 mW Pout =90 mW α =?
Solution :

α=
−10
L
log
P¿ [ ]
Pout
db / km

α=
−10
0.5
log
[ ]
90 ×10−3
100 ×10−3
db / km α =0.915

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Module 5
Semiconductors and Devices:
Fermi level in Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor, Expression for concentration of electrons in conduction
band & holes concentration in valance band (only mention the expression), Relation between Fermi energy &
Energy gap in intrinsic semiconductors(derivation), Law of mass action, Electrical conductivity of a
semiconductor (derivation), Hall effect, Expression for Hall coefficient (derivation) and its application. Photo-
diode and Power responsivity, Construction and working of Semiconducting Laser, Four probe method to
determine resistivity, Phototransistor,
Numerical problems

Q1) Arrive at the Relation between Fermi energy and energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes per unit volume in valence band is equal to number of
electrons per unit volume in conduction band.
N e =N h
3 ( E f − Eg ) 3 −E f
4 √2 4 √2 ¿ kT
Ne= 3 (
πm ¿e kT ) 2 e kT
N h = 3 ( πm h kT ) 2 e
Substitute h and h relation to above
relation
3 Ef − Eg 3 − Ef
¿ kT ¿
That is ( me ) 2
e =( m h ) 2 e kT
( 2 E f − Eg )

( )
¿ 3
kT mh 2
⇒e = ¿
me
By taking natural logarithm on both side

( )
¿
( 2 E f −E g ) 3 mh
⇒ = ln
kT 2 m ¿e

( )
¿
3 mh E g
E f = kT ln ¿ +
4 me 2
Or
¿ ¿
m =mh . Due to that first term in the right hand side of the equation becomes
Under practical consideration e
zero, since ln 1=0

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1
∴ E f = Eg
2
Thus the relation shows that, Fermi level is in the middle of the band gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
Law of mass action
From equations 1 & 2, it is clear that, Ne and Nh depends on EF.
Consider the product of 1 & 2.
Eg
32
N e N h= 6
( πkT )3 ( m¿e m¿h )3 / 2 e kT
h
The above equation shows that the product NeNh does not depend on EF, but remains constant at a given
temperature. i.e.,
N e N h=¿a constant
The above condition is applicable for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor and is known as law of mass
action.
It states that ‘for a given semiconductor the product of charge carrier concentration remains a constant
at any given temperature, even if the doping is varied’.
In case of an intrinsic semiconductor, if ni is the charge carrier density, then
N e =N h =ni
Q2) Derive an Expression for electrical conductivity of a semiconductor.
Consider a semiconductor of area of cross section A. Let I be the current flowing through it. The electrons move
through a distance v in 1 second.
The volume swept by the electrons/second = Av.
Let Ne be the electron concentration/unit volume and e be the charge of an electron, then the charge flow in 1
second = eNeAv.
Since charge flow/second is the current I
I = eNeAv
Current density J = I/A = eNev.
If E is the applied electric field, then the mobility of an electron is given by µe = v/E
Therefore, J = eNe µeE
From Ohm’s law, we have J = sE
se is the conductivity due to electrons in the semiconductor material, then from Ohm’s law and the current
density expression, we get
se = eNe µe
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Similarly, conductivity due to holes can be given by,

sh = eNh µh
Total conductivity of a semiconducting material is given by
s = se + sh = eNe µe + eNh µh
For an intrinsic semiconductor, Ne = Nh = ni
Therefore s = ni e(µe + µh)
Q3) Derive an expression for Hall voltage in terms of Hall coefficient
Definition of Hall Effect: If we consider a current carrying semiconductor subjected to a magnetic field acting
at right angles to the direction of current flow. An electric field is induced across the material in a direction
perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the current flow; this phenomenon
is known as Hall Effect.
Consider a rectangular slab of a semiconductor material in which a current I is flowing in the positive x-
direction. Let the semiconducting material be of n-type in that electrons are charge carriers. Let magnetic field B
be applied along z-dierection. Under the influence of the magnetic field, the electrons experience the Lorentz

force F L , given by F L =−Bev−−−−−(1 ) where e is charge on the electron and v is drift velocity
Now if we applying the Flemings left hand rule, we see that the force is exerted on the electrons in the negative
y-direction. The electrons are deflected downwards. As a result the density of electron increases in the lower end
of the material due to which its bottom surface becomes negatively charged. On the other hand, the loss of
electrons from the upper end causes the material top surface to become positively charged. Hence a potential

called Hall voltage ( v H ) appears between the upper and lower surface of the semiconductor material which

establishes an electric field called Hall field(

EH )
develops across the conductor in the negative y-direction.

The field E H , exerts an upward force F H on the electrons is given by F H =−eE H −−−−−(2)

Now the deflection of electrons continuous in the downward direction due to the Lorentz force F L , it also

contributes to the growth of Hall field. As a result the force F H which acts on the electron in the upward

direction also increases. These two forces reach an equilibrium position at F L =F H

Using equation (1) and (2) the above equation can be written as
−Bev=−eE H
∴ E H =Bv−−−−−(3 )
If d is the distance between the upper and lower surface of the slab.

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vH
EH= v H =E H d=Bvd−−−−−−(4 ) [from equation (3)]
Then d or
Let w is the thickness of the material in the z-direction. Therefore its area of cross section normal to the
direction of current (I) iswd .
I
J=
Then current density can be written as wd

We know that J=nev=ρv−−−−−(5 )

I
ρv=
Therefore the current density relation will become wd
I
v= −−−−−−(6 )
Or ρ wd
Now substitute equation (5) to equation (4)
BI ρ=
BI
−−−−−(8 )
vH = −−−−−(7 )
Then ρw or
v H w where ρ is charge density

For a given semiconductor, the Hall field E H depends on the current density J and the applied magnetic field B

That is E H ∝ JB

Or E H =R H JB where R H Hall coefficient

EH
RH= −−−−−−(9 )
Then JB
Substitute equation (3) and (5) in equation (7)
Bv 1
RH= = −−−−−−(10)
Then ρ vB ρ
Then Hall voltage can be represent in terms of Hall coefficient using equation (7) and (10) as

v H =R H ( )
BI
w
The above expression represents Hall voltage in terms of Hall coefficient

Q4) Explain the construction and working of Semiconductor Laser

Gallium arsenide laser

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Construction: The gallium-arsenide (Ga-As) laser was

constructed by Hall. A typical Ga-As semiconductor laser
is as shown in the figure.
It is a single crystal of Ga-As and consists of a heavily
doped n and p-sections. [The n-section is derived by
doping with tellurium and the p-section is derived by
doping Ga-As with zinc]. The doping concentration is
very high and is of the order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3.
The p-n junction is connected to a dc power supply in a forward bias condition. The resonant cavity
required for energy amplification is obtained by cleaving (polishing) the end faces of the junction diode, so that
they act as optical cavity. Other sides of the p-n junction device are made as rough surfaces so as to prevent the
leakage of light from them.
Working:
 The Ga-As laser diode is subjected to a forward bias current. Under the influence of the applied voltage,
electrons from the n – section and holes from p –section flow across the junction.
 When a hole meets an electron, recombination takes
place resulting in the emission of a photon. This
emission (incoherent & less intense) falls under the class
of spontaneous emission and the device is called a light
emitting diode (LED).
 To convert an LED into a laser diode, a high current is
required to achieve the population inversion and also a heavily doped pn-junction.
 As the current is increased the carrier concentration in the depletion region will reach very high values
and a threshold for lasing will be attained. At this time, an active region (Inversion region) is
formulated very near the junction (depletion layer), where the population gets inverted.
 The active region will be very thin, of the order of 1- 3 m
wide and contains a high density of excited charge carriers in
an environment where they can recombine with stimulated
emission of light.
Let us understand how stimulated emission occurs in the
diode. We know that, for a semiconductor, at absolute zero, the
conduction band is completely empty and the valence band is
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completely filled but with a small band gap in between. [The dashed area in the below energy level diagram
shows that the valence band is in completely filled state].
In operation, under the large applied forward bias, electrons and holes are injected across the junction in
large concentration. The large current raises the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. But,
this is an unstable state and within a short time, the electrons in the conduction band drop to the lowest level in
that band. At the same time, the electrons in the top of the valence band drop to the lowest unoccupied levels,
leaving behind holes. That means, now the lowest level of conduction band is full of electrons [dashed part in
the above energy level diagram], while the top of the valence band is full of holes, which is an indication of
population inversion between the two bands.
At this stage, a photon originally released by spontaneous emission may trigger stimulated emission
over a large number of recombination’s, leading to the build up of laser radiation of high power. The p-n
junction lasers are also called injection lasers since the laser action is generated by minority charge carriers
injected across the depletion region of the junction.
In case of gallium-arsenide, we get a light radiation in the infrared region. The energy separation between the
conduction band and the valence band is 1.4 eV and hence, the wavelength of light emitted is 8874 Å at room
temperature. A GaAsP laser radiates at 6500 Å in the visible red region.
The semiconductor diode lasers are simple, compact and highly efficient. They require little power and little
auxiliary equipment. They are less monochromatic and highly temperature sensitive.
Advantages of semiconductor laser:
1. They are compact
2. They are efficient
3. They are highly stable
Q5) Explain the Construction and working of Photodiode
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric current. They are also called a
photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are designed to work in reverse bias condition.
Construction

The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-type. In this design, the formation of P-type material
can be done from the diffusion of the P-type substrate which is lightly doped. So, the P+ ions layer can be formed because
of the diffusion method. On the substrate of N-type, the N-type epitaxial layer can be grown.

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Photodiode Construction
The development of a P+ diffusion layer can be done over the heavily doped N-type epitaxial layer. The contacts are
designed with metals to make two terminals like anode and cathode. The front region of the diode can be separated into
two types like active & non-active surfaces.

The designing of the non-active surface can be done with silicon dioxide (SiO2). On an active surface, the light rays can
strike over it whereas, on a non-active surface, the light rays cannot strike. & the active surface can be covered through
the material of anti-reflection so that the energy of light cannot lose and the highest of it can be changed into the current.

Working of Photodiode

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an
electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region
junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.

Photodiode Working Principle

Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be
generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent
current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

Q6) Explain the Construction and working of Phototransistor

Phototransistors are transistors with the base terminal exposed. Instead of sending current into the base, the photons from
striking light activate the transistor. This is because a phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor and focuses on
the energy that is passed through it.
Construction

A phototransistor is nothing but an ordinary bi-polar transistor in which the base region is exposed to illumination. It is
available in both the P-N-P and N-P-N types having different configurations like common emitter, common collector, and
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common base but generally, common emitter configuration is used. It can also work while the base is made open.
Compared to the conventional transistor it has more base area and collector area.

Ancient phototransistors used single semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium but now a day’s modern
components use materials like gallium and arsenide for high-efficiency levels. The base is the lead responsible for
activating the transistor. It is the gate controller device for the larger electrical supply. The collector is the positive lead
and the larger electrical supply. The emitter is the negative lead and the outlet for the larger electrical supply.

Photo Transistor Construction

With no light falling on the device there will be a small current flow due to thermally generated hole-electron pairs and
the output voltage from the circuit will be slightly less than the supply value due to the voltage drop across the load
resistor R. With light falling on the collector-base junction the current flow increases. With the base connection open
circuit, the collector-base current must flow in the base-emitter circuit, and hence the current flowing is amplified by
normal transistor action.

The collector-base junction is very sensitive to light. Its working condition depends upon the intensity of light. The base
current from the incident photons is amplified by the gain of the transistor, resulting in current gains that range from
hundreds to several thousand. A phototransistor is 50 to 100 times more sensitive than a photodiode with a lower level of
noise.

Working

A normal transistor includes an emitter, base, and collector terminals. The collector terminal is biased positively relating
to the emitter terminal & the BE junction is reverse biased.

A phototransistor activates once the light strikes the base terminal & the light triggers the phototransistor by allowing the
configuration of hole-electron pairs as well as the current flow across the emitter or collector. When the current increases,
then it is concentrated as well as changed into voltage.
Generally, a phototransistor doesn’t include a base connection. The base terminal is disconnected as the light is used to
allow the flow of current to supply throughout the phototransistor.

Numerical
Q1. For intrinsic gallium arsenide, the room temperature electrical conductivity is 10 -6/Ωm; the electron
and hole mobilities are respectively 0.85 m 2v-1s-1 and 0.04 m2v-1s-1. Compute the intrinsic carrier
concentration at room temperature.

Nagendra Prasad B K, Assistant Professor, Acharya Institute of Technology 38 | P a g e

 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Applied Physics for EEE stream Subject Code: BPHYE202

Data
Electrical conductivity, σ₁ = 10-6/Ωm.
Electron mobility, μe = 0.85 m2v-1s-1
Hole mobility, μh = 0.04 m2v-1s-1
To Find: ni = ?
Solution :
We have the relation for conductivity σ₁ as
σ₁ = nie (μe + μh).
1
σ
ni =
e ( μ e+ μ h )
−6
10
ni = = 7x1012 m3.
e ( μe + μh )
Q2. Calculate the resistivity of the for intrinsic semiconductor at 300K, whose charge carrier
concentration ni= 2.4x1019/m3, μe = 0.39 m2v-1s-1, μh =0.19 m2v-1s-1

Nagendra Prasad B K, Assistant Professor, Acharya Institute of Technology 39 | P a g e