Unit 1: System Design and Development Data refers to the WHAT is SDLC?

What is a System? documentation and information created during the design and A software life cycle model (also termed process model) is a
A system is a collection of interrelated components or development phases of a system or product. This data is pictorial and diagrammatic representation of the software life
elements that work together to achieve a specific goal or essential for ensuring that the system meets the required cycle. A life cycle model represents all the methods required
purpose. Systems can be found in various domains, including specifications and functions as intended. It includes: to make a software product transit through its life cycle
technology, business, biology, and more. Systems are often  Design Specifications: Detailed descriptions of the system's stages. It also captures the structure in which these methods
categorized by their complexity, structure, and purpose. In functionality, features, and performance criteria. are to be undertaken. In other words, a life cycle model maps
computing, a system can refer to both hardware and  Development Plans: Documents outlining the steps, the various activities performed on a software product from its
software components that interact to process data and resources, and timelines for system development. inception to retirement. Different life cycle models may plan
produce meaningful outputs. A system is a set of elements or  Prototype and Test Data: Information collected during the necessary development activities to phases in different
components that are organized and interact with one testing phases to verify system performance. ways. Thus, no element which life cycle model is followed, the
another to achieve a specific purpose or function. It includes  Design Review Records: Minutes and reports from design essential activities are contained in all life cycle models though
inputs, processes, and outputs that work together within a review meetings. the action may be carried out in distinct orders in different life
defined boundary.  Change Management Records: Documentation of any cycle models. During any life cycle stage, more than one
Key Elements of a System: changes made during the development process and the activity may also be carried out.
 Inputs: Resources or data provided to the system. rationale behind them. Stage1: Planning and requirement analysis .Requirement
 Processes: Operations performed within the system to Importance: Analysis is the most important and necessary stage in SDLC.
transform inputs.  Ensures traceability and accountability during system The senior members of the team perform it with inputs from
 Outputs: The result or outcome produced by the system. development. all the stakeholders and domain experts or SMEs in the
 Feedback: Information that helps improve the system’s  Helps in identifying and addressing issues early in the industry.
performance by adjusting inputs or processes. process. Stage2: Defining Requirements Once the requirement analysis
 Provides a clear record for future maintenance and is done, the next stage is to certainly represent and document
Learning to Recognize Types of Systems upgrades. the software requirements and get them accepted from the
Systems can be classified into different types based on their Data Accession List (DAL): project stakeholders.
characteristics and functionality. Recognizing the type of The Data Accession List (DAL) is a structured list that Stage3: Designing the Software The next phase is about to
system helps in better understanding its operation and catalogues all the data and documents generated during a bring down all the knowledge of requirements, analysis, and
management. project or system lifecycle. It provides a comprehensive record design of the software project. This phase is the product of the
 Natural Systems: Found in nature and occur without of: last two, like inputs from the customer and requirement
human intervention (e.g., ecosystems, weather systems).  Data Ownership: Who created the data and who is gathering.
 Artificial Systems: Man-made systems designed to fulfill responsible for maintaining it. Stage4: Developing the project In this phase of SDLC, the
specific purposes (e.g., computer systems, economic  Data Format: The format in which the data is stored (e.g., actual development begins, and the programming is built. The
systems). PDF, Excel, Word). implementation of design begins concerning writing code.
 Access Rights: Who has permission to view, edit, or delete Developers have to follow the coding guidelines described by
2. Open vs. Closed Systems: the data. their management and programming tools like compilers,
 Open Systems: Interact with their environment by Data Criteria List (DCL): interpreters, debuggers, etc. are used to develop and
exchanging inputs and outputs (e.g., a company receiving The Data Criteria List (DCL) outlines the criteria for data implement the code.
customer feedback). collection, storage, and usage within a system. It ensures that Stage5: Testing After the code is generated, it is tested against
 Closed Systems: Do not interact with their environment; data meets specific quality standards, including: the requirements to make sure that the products are solving
they are self-contained (e.g., a chemical reaction in a  Accuracy: Ensuring data is correct and free of errors. the needs addressed and gathered during the requirements
sealed container).  Completeness: Ensuring all necessary data is collected and stage.
stored. Stage6: Deployment Once the software is certified, and no
Analytical Representation of a System  Consistency: Ensuring data is presented in a uniform bugs or errors are stated, then it is deployed. Then based on
Analyzing a system involves representing it in a way that manner. the assessment, the software may be released as it is or with
helps stakeholders understand its components, structure, and Purpose: suggested enhancement in the object segment.
behavior. Analytical representation is crucial in system design, Stage7: Maintenance Once when the client starts using the
Documentation Levels of Formality
development, and troubleshooting. developed systems, then the real issues come up and
Documentation levels of formality refer to the degree of rigor
Common Methods of Analytical Representation: requirements to be solved from time to time. This procedure
and standardization applied to system documentation. There
 Flowcharts: A visual representation of a system’s where the care is taken for the developed product is known as
are generally three levels of formality:
processes and workflows. maintenance.
1. High Formality:
 Block Diagrams: Simplified diagrams that show the
 Involves detailed and comprehensive documentation.
components of a system and their interactions. Waterfall Model
 Follows strict regulatory and compliance requirements.
 Mathematical Models: Equations and formulas used to The Waterfall Model is one of the earliest and most traditional
 Common in industries like aerospace, healthcare, and
represent a system’s behavior and predict outcomes. approaches to the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). It
defense.
 Use Case Diagrams: Illustrations of how users interact follows a linear and sequential flow where each phase must be
2. Medium Formality:
with a system to achieve specific goals. completed before moving to the next. The process is
 Involves structured documentation with moderate levels of
Benefits of Analytical Representation: structured in distinct stages, much like a waterfall flowing
detail.
 Helps identify system components and their interactions. down, hence the name. Here's a breakdown of the Waterfall
 Balances thoroughness and efficiency.
 Facilitates problem-solving and system improvement. model:
 Common in industries like manufacturing and software
 Provides a clear understanding of system workflows. Key Features of the Waterfall Model:
development.
 Linear Process: The process flows in one direction, from
3. Low Formality:
System Stakeholders: User and End User Roles one phase to the next, without going back. Once a phase
 Involves minimal documentation, focusing on essential
Stakeholders are individuals or groups who have an interest in is completed, you cannot go back to it.
information.
a system and its development. They can influence or be  Well-Defined Phases: The phases of development are
 Prioritizes speed and flexibility.
affected by the system's performance. clearly defined, and each phase has specific deliverables.
 Common in startups and agile development environments.
Types of Stakeholders:  Documentation Driven: Emphasis is placed on
Importance:
 User: Someone who interacts with the system to achieve documentation. Every phase produces comprehensive
 Ensures that documentation meets the needs of the
their tasks. documents before moving to the next phase.
project and stakeholders.
 End User: The primary person for whom the system is Characteristics:
 Helps in maintaining compliance with industry standards
designed. They experience the final output of the system.  Rigid Structure: Since it is a linear model, once a phase is
 Balances the need for thorough documentation with the
 Other Stakeholders: These may include project managers, completed, it is difficult to go back and make changes.
practicality of project timelines.
developers, clients, and regulatory bodies.  Clear Documentation: Each phase produces detailed
Example of Stakeholders in a Library Management System: System Documentation Issues documentation, which is helpful for large teams and long-
 User: Library staff managing books. System documentation issues refer to the challenges and term projects.
 End User: Library members borrowing books. problems that can arise in creating, maintaining, and  Suitability for Small Projects: The Waterfall model works
 Other Stakeholders: IT staff, system developers, and local managing documentation for systems. Common issues best for small projects with well-defined requirements
authorities. include: that are unlikely to change during development.
Importance of Stakeholders in System Development: 1. Incompleteness: Missing critical information can lead to Pros of the Waterfall Model:
•Identifying stakeholders helps in understanding their needs misunderstandings and errors.  Simple and Easy to Understand: Its sequential nature
and expectations. 2. Inconsistency: Inconsistent formatting, terminology, and makes it easy to understand and manage.
•Ensures the system meets user requirements and improves structure can reduce the usability of documentation.  Clear Documentation: Comprehensive documentation
user satisfaction. 3. Outdated Information: Failure to update documentation helps in better project management and troubleshooting.
System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics as the system evolves can lead to incorrect or irrelevant  Structured Approach: Clear milestones make progress
Understanding the attributes, properties, and characteristics information. easy to track.
of a system is essential for evaluating its performance and 4. Lack of Accessibility: If documentation is not easily Cons of the Waterfall Model:
efficiency. accessible, it can hinder system maintenance and  Inflexible: Once a phase is completed, it is difficult to go
Characteristics of a System: troubleshooting. back and make changes, making it unsuitable for projects
 Boundary: Defines the limits of the system. 5. Poor Quality Control: Lack of proper review and validation where requirements are expected to change.
 Environment: External factors that influence the system. processes can result in low-quality documentation.  Late Testing: Testing only happens after the coding phase,
 Structure: The arrangement of components within the Solutions to Documentation so bugs are found late in the development process, which
system. could be costly to fix.
 Purpose: The specific goal or function the system aims to  Not Ideal for Complex Projects: For complex and large-
achieve. scale projects, where requirements can evolve, the
Waterfall model may lead to inefficiencies.

Attributes of a System: UNIT :1

 Functionality: The core tasks that the system performs.
System Design and Development Data UNIT 3 UNIT :2
  Usability: The ease with which users can interact with the Incremental Model is a process of software development The Spiral Model is a Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
system. where requirements divided into multiple standalone modules model that provides a systematic and iterative approach to
 Efficiency: How well the system utilizes resources to of the software development cycle. In this model, each software development. In its diagrammatic representation,
achieve its goals.
module goes through the requirements, design, looks like a spiral with many loops. The exact number of loops
 Reliability: The consistency and dependability of the
implementation and testing phases. Every subsequent release of the spiral is unknown and can vary from project to project.
system’s performance.
 Scalability: The system’s ability to handle increased of the module adds function to the previous release. The Each loop of the spiral is called a phase of the software
workload or expansion. process continues until the complete system achieved. development process.
Properties of a System:
 Modularity: The degree to which a system's components Objectives determination and Identify and resolve Risks:
can be separated and recombined. identify alternative solutions:
 Connectivity: How well the components of a system are
linked.
 Interdependence: The reliance of components on each
other to function properly. Develop the next version
System/Product Life Cycle Concepts Review and plan of the Product:
The System Life Cycle refers to the stages a system goes for the next Phase
through from its inception to its retirement. These stages
ensure that the system meets user requirements and Phase of spiral model
remains functional over time.
1) Objectives determination and identify alternative solutions:
Phases of the System Life Cycle:
 Conceptualization: Identifying the need for a system. The various phases of incremental model are as follows: Requirements are gathered from the customers and the
 Development: Designing and building the system. 1. Requirement analysis: objectives are identified, elaborated, and analyzed at the start
 Implementation: Deploying the system for use. 2. Design & Development: of every phase. Then alternative solutions possible for the
 Operation and Maintenance: Ensuring the system 3. Testing: phase are proposed in this quadrant.
continues to function as intended. 4. Implementation: 2) Identify and resolve Risks: During the second quadrant, all
 Retirement: Phasing out the system when it is no longer When we use the Incremental Model? the possible solutions are evaluated to select the best possible
needed.
 When the requirements are superior. solution. Then the risks associated with that solution are
Understanding the User’s Problem, Opportunity, and
Solution Spaces  A project has a lengthy development schedule. identified and the risks are resolved using the best possible
A critical part of system development is understanding the  When Software team are not very well skilled or trained. strategy. At the end of this quadrant, the Prototype is built for
user’s needs and challenges. This involves identifying  When the customer demands a quick release of the the best possible solution.
problems, exploring opportunities, and providing product. 3) Develop the next version of the Product: During the third
appropriate solutions.  You can develop prioritized requirements first. quadrant, the identified features are developed and verified
 Problem Space: The issues and challenges that users face Advantage of Incremental Model through testing. At the end of the third quadrant, the next
in their current processes.
 Errors are easy to be recognized. version of the software is available.
 Opportunity Space: The potential improvements or
innovations that a system can offer to address user  Easier to test and debug 4) Review and plan for the next Phase: In the fourth quadrant,
needs.  More flexible. the Customers evaluate the so-far developed version of the
 Solution Space: The specific system features and  Simple to manage risk because it handled during its software. In the end, planning for the next phase is started.
functions that address user needs and solve problems. iteration. Advantages of the Spiral Model
Example: For an online shopping system:  The Client gets important functionality early.  Risk Handling:
 Problem Space: Difficulty in managing inventory and Disadvantage of Incremental Model  Good for large projects:
processing orders.
 Need for good planning  Flexibility in Requirements: Iterative and Incremental
 Opportunity Space: Automating order management and
providing a user-friendly interface.  Total Cost is high. Approach:
 Solution Space: Developing an e-commerce platform with  Well defined module interfaces are needed. Disadvantage of Spiral Model
inventory tracking and secure payment processing. What is Agile Model?  Complex
Commercial/Consumer Product Versus Contract System The Agile Model was primarily designed to help a project  Expensive.
Development adapt quickly to change requests. So, the main aim of the Agile  Too much dependability on Risk Analysis:.
Understanding the difference between commercial model is to facilitate quick project completion. To accomplish  Difficulty in time management
consumer products and contract system development is this task, agility is required. Agility is achieved by fitting the  Time-Consuming
essential for system designers and developers.
process to the project and removing activities that may not be  A spiral approach is utilized when frequent
Commercial/Consumer Products: These systems are
essential for a specific project. Also, anything that is a waste of releases are necessary.
developed for mass-market consumers. They are designed to
meet general needs and are available to the public. time and effort is avoided. The Agile Model refers to a group Where to use the Spiral Model
Examples: Mobile ,apps ,Laptops ,Household appliances of development processes. These processes share some basic  When it is appropriate to create a prototype
Contract System Development: These systems are custom- characteristics but do have certain subtle differences among  When evaluating risks and costs is crucial
built for specific clients or organizations. They address themselves.  The spiral approach is beneficial for projects with
unique requirements and often involve contractual moderate to high risk.
agreements Examples: Custom ERP solutions for
 The SDLC’s spiral model is helpful when
businesses, Government software systems , Military defense
systems requirements are complicated and ambiguous.
 If modifications are possible at any moment
Quality System
A Quality System is a set of procedures, processes, and  What is the Iterative Waterfall Model?
resources implemented by an organization to ensure that What is Iterative model
products or services consistently meet customer The Iterative Model is a software development approach that
requirements and comply with applicable standards. The combines the sequential steps of the traditional Waterfall
goal of a quality system is to improve efficiency, reduce Model with the flexibility of iterative design. It allows for
errors, and ensure customer satisfaction by maintaining improvements and changes to be made at each stage of the
high-quality outputs.
development process, instead of waiting until the end of the
Engineering Data Records Phase of agaile model
Engineering Data Records refer to the collection of technical project. The Iterative Waterfall Model provides feedback paths
 Requirement Gathering
documents, design specifications, test results, and reports from every phase to its preceding phases, which is the main
 Design the Requirements
that are created and maintained throughout the lifecycle of a difference from the classical Waterfall Model.
 Construction / Iteration
system or product. These records provide critical information When to use Iterative Waterfall Model?
needed for product development, manufacturing, testing,  Testing / Quality Assurance
 The prerequisite of being well-defined and
maintenance, and compliance with regulatory standards.  Deployment
comprehended.
Key components of Engineering Data Records include:  Feedback
 The development team is gaining knowledge
 Design Specifications: Details about how the system
should be built and function. about new technologies.
1Customer-Centric Approach,
 Drawings and Schematics: Technical diagrams that  Certain characteristics and objectives carry a
2Flexibility to Change Requirements
provide a visual representation of the product or system. significant chance of failure in the future.
3Faster Delivery (Incremental Releases)
 Test Results: Documentation of tests conducted to verify Advantage of iterative model 1Phase Containment of Errors ,
product performance and compliance. 4Improved Quality and Testing
 Change Logs: Records of any modifications made to the 5Better Team Collaboration 2 Collaboration , 3 Flexibility 4 Testing and Feedback , 5 Risk
product design or system during its lifecycle. Reduction
 Maintenance and Operating Manuals: Guidelines on how Drawbacks of Iterative Waterfall Model
to operate and maintain the product or system. 1 Difficult to incorporate change requests,
 Importance of Quality System and Engineering Data
2 Incremental delivery not supported
Records
 Traceability: Helps track the history of a product from its 3 Overlapping of phases not supported
initial design to its final use. 4 Risk handling not supported
Unit 2
Incremental Model
What is the Spiral Model? UNIT 2