AP World History - Ultimate Guide

Unit 1: The Global Tapestry

Review of History Within Civilizations
What rises out of collapse of classical civilization and interactions developing between new
states
Growth of long-distance trade

Overview of World’s Major Religions in 1200

Most events are connected to religion
Key Points:
1. Most belief systems still are impacting history
2. Most major religions have divisions = subgroups and sects (focus more on
overall religion)
3. Understand theological basis of belief systems and impact of belief systems on
social, political, cultural, military developments
4. Origin and spread of belief systems - cultural interactions
Religious Mysticism: adherents within religions focusing on mystical experiences that
bring them closer to divine - prayer, meditation
Buddhism
Cultures: India, China, Southeast Asia, Japan
Context:
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a young Hindu prince - lived in
Nepal from 563-483 BCE, rejected wealth and world possessions and
became Buddha (Enlightened One)
No supreme being - 4 Noble Truth: (1) all life is suffering, (2) suffering
caused by desire, (3) can be freed of desire, (4) freed of desire
following a prescribed path
Death of Buddha (483 BCE) = Buddhism split - Theravada Buddhism
and Mahayana Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism: meditation, simplicity, nirvana as renunciation
of consciousness and self
Mahayana Buddhism: great ritual, spiritual comfort - more complex
but with greater spread
Impact: rejects caste system - appealed to those of lower rank
India: reabsorbed in Hinduism
China, Japan, Southeast Asia: Buddhism continued to thrive
Further: spread via trade routes
Christianity
Cultures: started as group of Jews, quickly expanded through Europe,
northeastern Africa, Middle East
 Context:
Based around Jesus of Nazareth, a figure who claimed to be Messiah
the Jews had awaited - teachings of devotion to God and love for
others
Jesus was crucified by Roman and Jewish leaders in 30 CE and his
followers believe he rose from dead into heaven
Based on Bible teachings
Believe Jesus is the Son of God - forgiveness of sins, everlasting life
is achievable through him
World was created by God, but world has fallen from God
Believers should seek God and care for him and others
Impact: compassion, grace through faith appealed to lower classes and women
Became most influential religion in Mediterranean basin by 3rd
century
Became official religion of Roman Empire, then branching north and
west
Connection with Roman Empire had profound impact on global
culture
Confucianism
Cultures: China (400 BCE+)
Context:
Founded by Confucius, educator and political advisor - thoughts and
sayings collected in the Analects
Deals with how to restore political and social order, not with
philosophical or religious topics
5 fundamental relations build society and make it orderly - (1) ruler
and subject, (2) parent and child, (3) husband and wife, (4) older
sibling and younger sibling. (5) friend and friend
Impact:
Compatible with other religions, causing it to flourish
Led to distinctive Chinese culture of tight-knit communities
Stayed within Chinese culture
Hinduism
Cultures: India
Context:
Belief in one supreme force called Brahma who created everything -
gods are manifestations of Brahma (Vishnu = preserver, Shiva =
destroyer)
Goal of believer is to merge with Brahma - believe it takes multiple
lives to accomplish and believers live to determine who they will be in
their next life
Following the dharma (rules and obligations of your caste) will move
you towards Brahma - moksha is highest stake of being (internal
peace and release of soul)
No sacred text - Vedas and Upanishads guide Hindus
Impact:
Religion and social caste system, which has prevented global
acceptance of religion
Recently, Hindus are rebelling caste system
Spawned Buddhism
Islam
 Cultures: caliphates (Islamic kingdoms), North Africa, central Asia, Europe
Context:
7th century - Muslims are the believers
Allah presented words through prophet Muhammad, whose words
were recorded in the Qur’an
Salvation is won through submission to God - 5 Pillars of Islam: (1)
confession, (2) prayer 5 times a day, (3) charity, (4) fasting during
Ramadan, (5) pilgrimage to Mecca
2 groups, Shia and Sunni, who disagreed who should succeed
Muhammad
Impact:
Rapidly spread to Middle East
Judaism
Cultures: Hebrews
Context
God selected a group of holy people who should follow his laws and
worship them
Unique relationship with God
World is for them to enjoy, free will - destiny of world is paradise
Hebrew Bible - Torah, miracles, laws, historical chronicles, poetry,
prophecies
Impact
First of major monotheistic faiths

Developments in the Middle East

Abbasid Dynasty: Golden Age to Remember
Islamic Empire from 750-1258 CE - early mid-9th century golden age
Capital in Baghdad (modern-day Iraq)
Centre for arts and sciences - mathematics (Nasir al-Din al Tusi), medicine,
writings (House of Wisdom library)
Built around trade - used receipt and bill system
Decline of Islamic Caliphates: Internal Rivalries and Mongol Invasions
Challenged by revolt of enslaved Turkish warriors, new Shia dynasty in Iran,
Seljuk Turk Sunni group, Persians, Europeans, Byzantines, and most importantly
Mongols
Mongols overtook and destroyed Baghdad in 1258
Ottoman Turks would later reunite Egypt, Syria, and Arabia in new Islamic state
until 1918
Mamluks: Egyptian group that defeated Mongols in Nazareth, helping preserve
Islam in Near East

Developments in Europe
Middle Ages: fall of Rome before Renaissance - complicated time
Eastern Roman Empire became Byzantine Empire
Western Europe: collapsed entirely - Christianity remained strong
European Feudalism: Land Divided
Feudalism: European hierarchy social system of Middle Ages
1. King: power over whole kingdom
 2. Nobles: had power over sections of kingdom in exchange for loyalty
to king and military service
3. Vassals: lesser lords with sections of Noble land who could divide it
further - estates were called fiefs or manors (self-sufficient)
Founded three-field system: 3 fields for fall, spring, and
empty one to replenish nutrients
Conflict between lords was regulated with code of
chivalry which condemned betrayal and promoted mutual
respect
Male dominated: women could not own land and land was
passed down to eldest son (primogeniture), their
education was limited to domestic skills
4. Peasants or Serfs: worked the land
Had few rights or freedoms outside of manor
Skilled in trades, which helped them break out of feudal
mode as global trade increased - led to middle class
emergence of craftsmen and merchants

Emergence of Nation-States
At end of Middle Ages, people began moving from feudal kingdom organization to linguistic
and cultural organization - emergence of modern countries
Achievement of statehood in 13th century took different paths
Germany: reigning family of emperorship died out, entering a period of
interregnum (time between kings) - merchants and tradespeople became more
powerful
England: English nobles rebelled against King John and forced him to sign the
Magna Carta - reinstated the nobles, laid foundation for Parliament
Later divided into House of Lords (nobles and clergy - legal issues)
and House of Commons (knights and wealth burghers - trade and
taxation)
France: in 12th century, England began to occupy many parts of France which
spurred revolts - Joan of Arc fought back English out of Orleans
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): unified France, leading to England’s
withdrawal
Spain: Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married to unite Spain
in a single monarchy and forced all residents to convert to Christianity - Spanish
Inquisition
Russia: taken over by Tartars (group of eastern Mongols) under Genghis Kahn in
1242 until Russian prince Ivan III expanded his power in 1400s and became czar
- Ivan the Terrible became a ruthless ruler utilizing secret police in 1500s

Developments in Asia
China and Nearby Regions
Song Dynasty (960-1279)
Confucianism justified subordination of women - foot binding: women’s feet
bound after birth to keep them small
Neo-Confucianism: Buddhist ideas about soul, filial piety, maintenance of proper
roles, loyalty to superiors
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): after brief period of Mongol dominance
 Religion: influenced by Nestorianism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, and especially
Buddhism in two of its forms
Mahayana: peaceful and quiet existence apart from worldly values
Chan or Zen: meditation and appreciation of beauty

Japan
Relatively isolated from external influences outside Asia for many years
Feudal Japan (1192):
1. Emperor
2. Shogun (chief general)
3. Daimyo: owners of larger pieces of land, powerful samurai (like knights)
Followed Code of Bushido code of conduct - loyalty, courage, honour
4. Lesser samurai (like vassals)
5. Peasants and artisans
Women had little rights and esteem

India
Delhi Sultanate: Islamic invader kingdom in Delhi
Islam took over Northern India - clash between Islam monotheism and Hinduism polytheism
Islam rulership brought in colleges and farming improvements
Rajput Kingdoms: several Hindu principalities that united to resist Muslim forces from 1191
until eventual takeover in 1527

Southeast Asia
Religion spread and established different states

Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire in modern day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand
Beliefs were carried through Indian Ocean trade network
 Crafted the Angor Wat temple

Developments in Africa
Islamic Empire spread to North Africa in the 7th to 8th centuries - travelled through Sahara
Desert and reached the wealthy sub-Saharan
An explosion of trade began
Hausa Kingdoms: off Niger River, series of state system kingdoms
Islam region, achieved economic stability and religious influence though long
trade (salt and leather) - notably city of Kano
Political and economic downturn in 18th century due to internal wars
Developments in Americas
3 great civilization in Central and South America: Maya, Incas, Aztecs
Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice
Arrived in Mexico in mid 1200s
Tenochtitlan: capital city (modern Mexico City)
Expansionist policy and professional, strict army
Empire of 12 million people with flourishing trade, many of people enslaved
Women were subordinate, but could inherit property
Inca: My Land is Your Land
Andes Mountains in Peru
Expansionist - army, established bureaucracy, unified language, system of roads
and tunnels
Many people were peasants
Capital of Cuzco had almost 300000 people in late 1400s
Women were more important and could pass property to their daughters
Polytheistic religion with human sacrifice - Sun god was most important
People were mummified after death
Military was very important
Temple of the Sun and Machu Picchu architecture
The Mayans (textbook does not go into detail)

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange

Height of the Middle Ages: Trading and Crusading
Merchants emerged in towns - referred to as Burghers, became politically powerful
Towns often formed alliances with each other
Hanseatic League (1358): trade alliance though northern Europe to drive toward
nationhood, increase social mobility and flexibility
 Architecture: Romanesque to Gothic - especially reflected in cathedrals
Flying buttresses: tall windows and vaulted ceilings
Often had art and sculpture, music
Scholasticism: growth of education and knowledge - founding of universities for men;
philosophy, law, medicine study; ideas of Muslims and Greeks - came in conflict with religion
Crusades (11-14th century): military campaigns by European Christians to convert Muslims
and non-Christians, combat religious questioning
Combat Heresies: religious practices/beliefs not conforming to traditional
church doctrine
Pope Innocent III: issued strict decrees on church doctrine - frequently
persecuted heretics and Jews, unsuccessful 4th crusade
Pope Gregory IX: Inquisition (formal interrogation and prosecution of perceived
heretics with punishments like excommunication, torture, execution) - church
often referred to as Universal Church or Church Militant
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): Christian theologian who made advancements in
Christian thought - faith and reason aren’t in conflict
Urbanization
Trade led to the growth of urban culture - cities usually were around trade routes
Silk Route cities were the most populous - Baghdad, Merv, Chang’an
Constantinople before 1400 and Paris and Italian city-states after 1400 were big
European cities

The Rise and Fall of the Mongols

 Set of tribes and clans that were superb horseman and archers
Genghis Kahn: unified the tribes in Mongolia in the early 1200s to expand their authority
over other societies - first invaded China in 1234
Mongol Empire: spanned from Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe - spit into hordes after
death of Genghis Kahn, ruthless warriors destroying cities but remained peaceful after
settling into cities
Golden Horde: conquered modern-day Russia
Kublai Khan: Genghis Kahn’s successor - ruled China
Didn’t really have a set culture - didn’t enforce religion or way of life on conquered nations,
but did make any cultural advancements
Timur Lang: Mongol leader who took over India and destroyed everything - grew Islam in
the nation
If any residents of society the Mongols took over resisted, they would immediately kill them,
so most had no choice but to give in - they were ruthless fighters, organized and mobile
Impact:
Great diffusers of culture
Prevented Russia from culturally developing
World trade, cultural diffusion, global awareness grew as they spread through
Europe, the Middle East, and Asia

Mali and Songhai

Mali had a lot of gold that Islamic traders were interested in
Mansa Musa: Malian ruler who built the capital of Timbuktu and expended the kingdom
beyond Ghana
Sonni Ali: Songhai ruler that conquered region of west Africa in 15th century - became a
major cultural centre until 1600

Chinese Technology
Song Dynasty: bureaucratic system built on merit and civil service examination creating a
lot of loyal government workers, improved transportation and communication and business
practices
Concentrated on creating an industrial society - improved literacy with printed books which
increased productivity and growth

Review of Interactions Among Cultures

Trade Networks and Cultural Diffusion
Trade exploded from 1200-1450
Improved with better transportation and monetary systems
Main Global Trade Routes:
1. The Hanseatic League
2. The Silk Road
3. The land routes of the Mongols
4. Trade between China and Japan
5. Trade between India and Persia
6. The Trans-Saharan trade routes between west Africa and the Islamic Empire
Cultural diffusion - spread religions, languages, literature, art, idea, disease, plague
 Bubonic Plague: started in Asia in the 14th century and carried by merchants - killed about
1/3 people

Indian Ocean Trade

Dominated by Persians and Arabs - western India to Persian Gulf to eastern Africa
Great Zimbabwe: trading empire in Africa from 11th to 15th centuries

Vibrant Indian Ocean Communities

Sailors marrying local women created cultural intermixing

Silk Road
China to Mediterranean cultures in early days of Roman Empire and from 1200 to 1600
Cultural exchange through travellers stopping at trade towns - Kashgar, Samarkand
Silk, porcelain, paper, religion, food, military technologies

Hanseatic League
Made up of over 100 cities
Created substantial middle class in northern Europe
Set precedent for large, European trading operations

Expansion of Religion and Empire: Cultural Clash

Both natural spread of religion through contact over trade and intentional diffusion through
missionary work or religious war

Other Reasons People Were on the Move

Ran out of room in certain places, but cities were always increasing in size as opportunities
grew in them
New cities and empires drew people in
Muslim pilgrimages

Notable Global Travellers

1. Xuanzang: Chinese Buddhist monk - through T’ang Dynasty to India to explore Buddhism
2. Marco Polo: merchant from Venice, to China and Europe
3. Ibn Battuta: Islamic traveler, through Islamic world to India to China
4. Margery Kempe: English Christian, through Europe and Holy Land

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

Major European Developments
After 300 years of development, Europe become the dominant world power
Revolutions in European Thought and Expression:
1300s: Europe had been Christian for over a thousand years
As countries began to unify and connect more, especially with countries who
had preserved their history, Europe expanded its worldview and explored its past
and 4 cultural movements happened
The Renaissance
As trade increased, people moved to the cities and an influx of money was experienced - a
lot of money went to studying the past
Humanism: focus on personal accomplishment, happiness, and life on earth instead of
living for the goal of salvation
Afterlife remained dominant in the Catholic Church
Arts have a comeback
People could afford art again - Medici family patrons of Michelangelo and
Brunelleschi
Artists focused on realism - Leonardo da Vinci and Donatello
Western writers have an audience
mid-1400s: Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press - made books easy
to produce and affordable, and accessible to everyone
led to more literate people
The Protestant Reformation
Catholic Church was one of the most powerful organizations in the Middle Ages - power in
politics and society - undisputed authority
Church capitalized off its many followers with indulgences: paper faithful could purchase
to reduce time in purgatory
Nobles and peasants began getting increasingly frustrated by the church’s exploitation and
noticed its corrupt nature
Martin Luther: German monk who published his list of complaints against the church -
most significantly proposed salvation was given directly through God, not through the
church, which significantly reduced the church’s influence
Pope Leo X: excommunicated Luther when he refused to recount his idea
Christianity split - Luther’s ideas led to many others to come forward
Lutherans: Luther’s followers - separated from Catholic Church
Calvinism - John Calvin: predestination - only a few people would be saved by
God, great influence in Scotland and France
When the pope refused to annul King Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of
Aragon because a heir wasn’t produced, he declared himself the head of
religious affairs - presided over Church of England/Anglican Church
Jesuits - Ignatius Loyola: prayer and good works leads to salvation
Catholic Reformation (16th century)
Catholic church attempts to remedy some of their controversies and regains
some of its credibility - still wanted authority and control
Council of Trent: reinstated pope authority, punished heretics, reestablished
Latin as only language in worship
Caused wars

Scientific Revolution
Expanded education led to world discoveries
Copernican Revolution: Nicolaus Copernicus - discovered earth and other celestial bodies
revolved around the sun and the earth rotated on its axis
Galileo: built off Copernicus’s theories and proved them - forced to recant by the Catholic
Church and put under house arrest
Scientific Method: shift from reasoning being most reliable means of scientific meaning to
scientific method (theory, documentation, repetition, others experimenting)
Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon, Johannes Kepler, Sir Isaac Newton
 Led to Industrial Revolution, and many rejecting the church - atheists (believe no god
exists), deists (believe God exists, but is passive)
Deism: became popular in 1700s - God created the earth but doesn’t interfere in its workings

European Rivals
Spain and Portugal
Spain became very powerful, supporting exploration, expansion of Spanish language and
culture, and having a large naval fleet
Under Charles V, Spain controlled parts of France, the Netherlands, Austria,
Germany, Spain, America
Under Charles’s son Philip, the Spanish Inquisition to oust heretics was
continued, the Dutch Protestants under Spain revolted to form independent the
Netherlands - lost a lot of money in mid-17th century and was poised to be
defeated by England and France
Portugal focused on dominating costal Africa, Indian Ocean, Spice Islands - lost control to
Dutch and British

England
Henry VIII never succeeded in having a male heir - his daughter Elizabeth I became Queen
Elizabethan Age (1558-1603): expansion, exploration, colonization in New World - golden
age
Muscovy Company: first joint-stock company - British East India Company
James I: succeeded Elizabeth in 1607 - England and Scotland under one rulership, reforms
to accommodate Catholics and Puritans failed
Charles I: succeeded James in 1625 - signed Petition of Rights (limiting taxes and
forbidding unlawful imprisonment) - ignored it for the next 11 years
Scottish invaded England out of resentment for Charles in 1640 - called the Long
Parliament into session (sat for 20 years), which limited the powers of the
monarchy
Parliament raised an army, under Oliver Cromwell, to fight the King after he tried
to arrest the
Parliament defeats the king and executes him - began the English
Commonwealth (Oliver Cromwell known as the first Lord Protector)
Oliver Cromwell: intolerant of religion, violent against Catholics and Irish - highly resented
Charles II: exiled son of Charles I invited by Parliament to reclaim the throne as a limited
monarchy after Cromwell died (Stuart Restoration)
Agreed to Habeas Corpus Act: prevents people from arrests without due process
James II: succeeded Charles II after his death - highly disliked, fear he would make England
a Catholic county - driven from power by Parliament (Glorious Revolution)
Succeeded by his daughter Mary and her husband William - signed English Bill of Rights
(1689)

France
Unified and centralized under strong monarchy after Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)
Largely Catholic, but French Protestants started to emerge (Huguenots) and fought with
the Catholics
Henry IV: issued Edict of Nantes (1598) (environment of tolerance between religions) - first
of Bourbon kings who ruled until 1792
 Cardinal Richelieu: chief advisor to the Bourbons who compromised with Protestants
instead of fighting with them
Created the bureaucratic class noblesse de la robe, succeeded by Cardinal
Mazarin
Louis XIV: reigned from 1642-1715 - highly self-important and grandiose, condemned many
Huguenots, never summoned the French lawmakers, appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert to
manage royal funds - France almost constantly at war to increase empire
War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714): Louis’s grandson was to inherit the
Spanish throne, so England, Roman Empire, and German princes united to
prevent France and Spain from combining

German Areas (Holy Roman Empire?)

Holy Empire was in present day Austria/Germany - weak due to the mixed dynamics,
rulership, and religion of the surrounding area
Lost parts of Hungary to Ottoman Turks in early 16th century
Devastated by Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
German states were gaining power by 18th century
Peace of Augsburg (1555): intended to bring end to conflicts between Catholics and
Protestants
Thirty Years’ War: began when protestants in Bohemia challenged Catholics - violent and
destructive
Peace of Westphalia (1648): German states affirmed to keep the peace

Russia
Russian leaders were overthrowing reigning Mongols in late 15th century
Moscow became centre of Orthodox Christianity
Ivan III refused to pay tribute to Mongols and declared them free from their rule - lead
Russians, later Ivan IV did too
Recruited peasants freedom from boyars (their feudal lords) if they conquered
their own land themselves
Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible): strong leader feared by many - executing people who were
threats to his power
Battle for throne after Ivan IV died without an heir - Time of Troubles (1604 to 1613): killing
those who tried to rise to the throne
Michael Romanov was elected by feudal lords until 1917 - Romanovs consolidated power
and ruled ruthlessly
Peter the Great: ruled from 1682-1725 - redesigned and adapted Russia in to westernized
fashion
Catherine the Great: ruled from 1762-1796 - education and Western culture - serf conditions
were of no importance to her

Islamic Gunpowder Empires

Ottoman Empire precedes 1450 - founded by Osman Bey as the Mongol Empire fell
Eventually invaded Constantinople in 1453 and ended Byzantine Empire
(Constantinople now named Istanbul)
Ottomans were Islamic and solidified rule over territory from Greece to Persia to
around Mediterranean into Egypt and northern Africa by giving land (timars) to
Ottoman aristocrats to control
Employed practice called devshirme: enslaved Christian children and turned
them into warriors called Janissaries
 Selim I: came into power in 1512, led much of the empire growth, made Istanbul
centre of Islamic civilization
Suleiman I: succeeded Selim I in 1520, build Ottoman military and arts - golden
age from 1520-1566
Took over parts of Hungary, but could not successfully take over
Vienna
Babur: Mongol leader who invaded northern India in 1526 - Mughal Empire (dominated for
next 300 years)
United entire subcontinent
Akbar: succeeded Babur from 1556 to 1605 - united India further with religious
toleration, did give Muslim landowners (zamindars) power to tax
Hindus and Muslims lived side by side in a golden age of art and thought - under
Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal was built
Aurangzeb: emperor who ended religious toleration and waged wars to conquer
rest of India - Hindus were persecuted
Europeans arrived in early 17th century to trade and spread ideas - after 1750 is
when Britain turned into an imperial superpower

Africa
Starting in 10th century, wealth accumulated from trade - Songhai, Kongo, and Angola
became powerful kingdoms
Songhai:
Islamic state
Sunni Ali: ruler 1464-1493 - navy, central administration, financed Timbuktu - fell
to Moroccans
Asanti Empire: arose in 1670 - avoided invasion and expanded its territory
Kongo:
King Alfonso I: Catholic, and converted his people
Mostly destroyed by previous allies Portugal
Angola:
Established by Portuguese around 1575 for the slave trade
Queen Nzinga resisted Portuguese attempts to further their control for 40 years

Isolated Asia
China
Ming Dynasty was restored until 1644 after kicking out Mongols in 1368
Built huge fleets in early 15th century to explore Asia and Indian ocean - Zheng He: famous
Chinese navigator
Economy started failing due to silver currency inflation, famines in 17th century, peasant
revolts
Qing warriors were invited to help Ming emperor but instead ousted him in 1644
Qing/Manchus ruled China until 1911
Not ethnically Chinese so had to affirm legitimacy - displayed imperial portraits
with Chinese historical items
Kangxi: ruled from 1661 to 1722 and conquered Taiwan, Mongolia, central Asia,
Tibet
Qianlong: ruled from 1735 to 1796 and conquered Vietnam, Burma, Nepal
were both Confucian scholars
 Did not interact a lot with surrounding nations, protected their culture

Japan
Shoguns ruled Japan in 16th century, but Christian missionaries came in and Jesuits took
control of Nagasaki - westernization
Tokugawa Ieyasu: established Tokugawa Shogunate (Edo period) from 1600 to 1868 - strict
government that instituted a rigid social class model
Moved capital of Japan to Edo (modern-day Tokyo)
National Seclusion Policy (1635): prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad
and prohibited most foreigners
Japanese culture thrived - Kabuki theatre and haiku poetry became popular

Resistance
Key rebellions in 17th and 18th centuries:
1. Ana Nzinga’s Resistance (Kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba) - 1641-167
Resisted Portuguese colonizers
2. Cossack Revolts (Modern-day Ukraine) - 17-18th century
Resisted Russian Empire but were eventually defeated
3. Haitian Slave Rebellion (Haiti) - 1791-1804
Resisted France and eventually achieved independence for Haiti
4. Maratha (India) - 1680-1707
Resisted Mughal Empire and defeated them starting the Maratha
Empire
5. Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil) - 17th-18th century
Resisted slave-owners in Americas and avoided attempts to be
recaptured and sold
6. Metacom’s War (US) - 1675-1678
Resisted British colonists over unfair trade practices
7. Pueblo Revolts (US) - 1680
Resisted Spanish colonizers and their encomienda system, but
victory was temporary

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections

European and Expansion
Portuguese and Spanish controlled major shipping routes in Indian Ocean, Indonesia,
Atlantic Ocean
Portugal financed explorations
Prince Henry the Navigator (King John I’s son)
Vasco da Gama: explored eastern Africa, India
Spain also did:
Financed Christopher Columbus: explored Americas
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): agreement between Spain and Portugal to split colonized land
between them
England, Netherlands, France launched own explorations to acquire new colonies - caused
rise in nationalism and powerful monarchies
 Explorers
1. Amerigo Vespucci (1500): South America
2. Ponce de Leon (1513): Florida
3. Vasco de Balboa (1513): Central America
4. Ferdinand Magellan (1519): South America to Philippines
5. Giovanni da Verrazzano (1524): North America
6. Sir Francis Drake (1578): circumnavigated the globe
7. John Cabot (1497): North America
8. Henry Hudson (1609): Hudson River
Products that aided new explorations:
1. Sternpost Rudder: invented in China - better control of ships
2. Lateen Sails: invented in Roman Empire - allowed directional control of ships
3. Astrolabe: navigation device that measured distance between sun and stars on
horizon to determine latitude
4. Magnetic Compass: developed in China - determine direction
5. Three-Masted Caravels: large ships fit for longer journeys

The New World: Accidental Empire

Spanish explorers found great wealth in Aztec and Inca Empires
Hernando Cortés: landed on coast of Mexico in 1519 - sought to exploit the Aztec Empire
of their gold and spices
Neighbouring states were willing to help Spanish conquer Aztecs as they had
taken over a lot of the neighbouring communities - or those who didn’t cooperate
were forced or killed
Became very hungry for wealth and quickly seized Montezuma and began a
siege of Tenochtitlan

Disease: Ultimate Weapon of Mass Destruction

Spanish brought smallpox to the Aztec Empire which reduced their population from 20
million in 1520 to 2 million in 1580 - Spanish were able to take control in 1525
Francisco Pizarro took over Inca Empire in 1531 partially due to spreading disease to them
Pizarro was in control of the Inca Empire by 1535

The Encomienda System

Spanish implemented a hierarchical colonial society as they took over the New World
Structure:
1. Peninsulares: Spanish officials governing the colonies
2. Creoles: Spanish born in colonies to Spanish parents - barred from high
positions but were educated and wealthy
3. Mestizos: those with European/Native American ancestry
4. Mulattos: those with European/African ancestry
5. Native Americans
Viceroys: governors of each of 5 regions of New Spain - established the encomienda
system (system of forced labour of the natives and African slaves)

African Slave Trade

 Slaves brought to New World to work on the plantations and mines
Europe exploited a system of slavery already existing in Africa - prisoners were supposed to
serve their captors before being released
Europeans traded for their surplus of enslaved people, but didn’t understand that they were
supposed to be released
As demand for slaves in Europe increased, Europe became even more ruthless - kidnapping
Africans, causing wars, forcing rulers to give up their citizens
Slaves were forced onto ships, chained below deck, and endured brutal Middle Passage
Around 13 million Africans were taken - 60% to South America, 35% to Caribbean, 5% to
North America, around 20% of people on each trip perished

The Columbian Exchange

Transatlantic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, people, technology, ideas among Europe,
Americas, and Africa
Never before had so much moved across the ocean
Transfer of food products caused population increase in Europe, Asia, and Africa
Two key products: sugar (plantations appeared all over Spanish colonies), silver (mining
also in Spanish colonies) - both used significant forced labour
Spanish control of silver opened doors in Ming China

The Commercial Revolution

Age of Exploration: trading, empire building, conquest - due to financing schemes
Banking became a respectable practice - lead to joint-stock company (pool resources of
merchants to distribute costs and reducing dangers of individual investors)
Led to huge profits and modern-day concept of stock markets
Muscovy Company, Dutch East India Company took over trade routes
Mercantilism: theory that creating a favourable balance of import and export was best - of
course, this led to Europe’s intense colonialism to match their import demand
Caused resentment in colonies
Europe established limited trade with China from 16-18th century
Portugal gained control of Spice Islands to gain access to China
China and Japan still highly limited their trade with them
Developments in Specific Countries - 1450-1750
Major movements of the times affected parts of Europe differently
People with power guarded it
Peasant class weren’t able to participate in any developments
Powerful states were also developed in Middle East, India, China, and Japan
Monarchies contributed to development of strong loyalties and led to many
conflicts/wars

Unit 5: Revolutions
The Enlightenment
17th and 18th centuries - humankind in relation to government
Divine Right: church allied with strong monarchs, monarchs believed they were ordained by
God to rule - people had moral/religious obligation too obey
 Question of ultimate authority
Mandate of Heaven in China - had to rule justly to be appreciated in heaven
Social contract: governments not formed by divine decree, but to meet social and
economic needs
Philosophers of the age:
1. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): government should preserve peace/stability - all
powerful rule who ruled heavy-handed
2. John Locke (1632-1704): men are all born equal, mankind is good and rational -
primary role of government was to secure and guarantee natural rights and
revolting is justified if not
3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): all men are equal, society organized
according to general will of people - government is protection by community and
both being free
4. Voltaire (1694-1778): espoused idea of religious toleration
5. Montesquieu (1689-1775): separation of powers among branches of government
6. David Hume (1711-1776): lack of empirical evidence casts doubt on religion
7. Adam Smith (1723-1790): an “invisible hand” will regulate economy if it is left
alone
8. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): women should have political rights, including
voting and holding office
9. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): knowledge exists beyond what is deduced from
use of only observation or only reason
10. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794): criminals retain some rights and state should not
practice cruel punishment
Enlightened monarchs: utilized ideas of tolerance, justice, improving quality of life
Neoclassical Period: middle of 18th century - imitated style of ancient Greek/Roman
architecture

Enlightenment Revolutions in the Americas and Europe

American Revolution
British defeated France over American territory - French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War -
pushed France to northern territory
Americans revolting against British rulership
British passed laws on behalf of Crown for the American colonizers (George Grenville,
Charles Townshend)
Revenue Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), Tea Act (1773) intended to raise funds
for British government
Colonizers opposed these laws and began battling British troops shortly after - Boston Tea
Party (1773): colonists dumping imported tea in harbour to protest Tea Act
Thomas Paine: wrote Common Sense, encouraging colonizers to form a better government
than the monarchy - 6 months later the Declaration of Independence was signed
France joined forces with Americans in 1777 and defeated the British in 1781 and the
American democracy was created

French Revolution
France was running out of money from monarch spending, wars, and droughts - Louis XVI
proposed raising taxes to the Estates-General (governing body infrequently called by the
kings)
1. First Estate: clergy
 2. Second Estate: noble families
3. Third Estate: everyone else
Representatives from each estate
Third Estate was facing being shut out of new constitution - formed National Assembly in
1789 out of protest and peasants stormed the Bastille shortly after
Declaration of the Rights of Man - adopted by National Assembly in 1789 and caused big
changes in French government structure
Established a constitutional monarchy at first, but new constitution development led to the
Convention being the new ruling body - France become a republic (led by Jacobins who
later beheaded the king)
Convention threw out constitution again and created Committee of Public Safety: enforcer
of revolution and murdered any anti-revolution people
led by Maximilien Robespierre
French beheaded Robespierre in 1795 and established another new constitution with the
Directory as the government
Built up military, with Napoleon Bonaparte as one of the generals
Napoleon overthrew the Directory in 1799 - Napoleonic Codes (1804) recognized equality of
men, dissolved the Holy Roman Empire with French military and fought other countries who
eventually met to overthrow him (Prince von Metternich, Alexander I of Russia, Duke of
Wellington)
Defeated him at Waterloo in 1813 and met at Congress of Vienna to discuss
what to do with France
Congress of Vienna:
Balance of power should be maintained among powers of Europe
Tried to erase French Revolution

Haiti:
France enslaved many Haitians, who eventually revolted successfully, led by Pierre
Toussaint L’Ouverture
Jacques Dessalines, a former slave, became governor-general in 1804

South America
Napoleon invaded Spain and appointed his brother Joseph Bonaparte to the throne -
Colonists ejected French governor and appointed own leader in Venezuela,
Simón Bolívar, who eventually helped them declare independence from Spain in
1811
Established a national congress, but was also opposed by Spanish royalists, who declared
a civil war
Bolívar won freedom for Gran Colombia (Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela)
José de San Martin: took command of Argentinian, Chilean, Peruvian armies, and defeated
many Spanish forces to also declare independence from Spain

Brazil
John VI of Portugal fled to Brazil when Napoleon invaded Portugal -
His son Pedro became the emperor of Brazil and declared it independent with a
constitution
His son Pedro II took over and abolished slavery

Mexico
 priest Miguel Hidalgo led a revolt against Spanish rule in 1810, who was later killed by them
Jose Morelos picked up where he left off
Independence achieved in 1821 - Treaty of Cordoba: Spain recognizing their 300-year-old
control of Latin America was ending
Neocolonialism: independent nations still controlled by economic and political interests
Riches accumulated often stayed within wealthy landowning class
Mexican Revolution: protest of neocolonialism - rejection of Porfirio Diaz’s
dictatorship to protest impoverished conditions

Other resistance movements:

1. Peru
Tupac Amaru II led a revolt against Spanish occupiers and inspired further
resistance movements
2. West Africa
Samory Toure led resistance against French colonizers and inspired further
resistance
3. US
Sioux resisted the US government invading their land, but were shot at during
their protests
4. Sudan
Muhammad Ahdam led Mahadists in a revolt against colonial rule of Egypt but
was stopped by the British
Slavery still existed in independent nations as well as class inequalities
Catholic Church still dominated

Industry and Imperialism

Industrial revolution in Britain can not be separated from Imperialism
Industrial countries gained power quickly to exploit colony resources
Industrial Revolution: began in Britain in 19th century - spread through Europe, Japan, US
Agricultural output increased significantly again - more people moved to cities
Enclosure: public lands that were shared for farming became enclosed by fences
New farming technologies
Urbanization was natural - London grew to over 6 million people
Domestic system (most work being done on farms or at home or at small shops) preceded
New advancements that changed production:
1. Flying shuttle: sped up waving process
2. Spinning jenny: spinning vast amounts of thread
3. Cotton gin: invented by Eli Whitney - processed massive amounts of cotton
quickly
4. Steam engine - Thomas Newcomer, James Watt
5. Steamship - Robert Fulton
6. Steam-powered Locomotive - George Stephenson
7. Telegraph: communication with great distances in seconds
8. Telephone - Alexander Graham Bell
9. Lightbulb
10. Internal Combustion Engine for cars
11. Radio
 Also major developments in medicine and science, theory of natural selection (Charles
Darwin)
Rapid creation of products was done in factories
Interchangeable parts: machines could be replaces or fixed quickly
Assembly line: each worker had one small part in production - man became the
machine
Workers were overworked, underpaid, and working in unsafe conditions - child
labour was common
Despairing conditions
Formation of new social classes - aristocrats were those rich from industrial success,
middle class of skilled professionals, huge working class
Adam Smith: success achieved through private ownership and free market system
(capitalism) - governments removed from regulation = laissez-faire capitalism
Start of stock market and other financial instruments
Karl Marx: The Communist Manifesto - working class take over means of production and all
resources would be equally - Marxism was foundation for socialism and communism
Luddites: workers who destroyed equipment in middle of night to protest
working conditions
Marxism mixed with capitalist thought to create partly socialist systems in many
places
Major split among intellectuals and policymakers in regards to response to inhumane
factory conditions
Factory Act of 1883: limited hours of each workday, restricted children from working,
factory owners had to make conditions safer
Labour Unions: vehicles for employees to bargain for better conditions
Living conditions improved - middle class became larger, public education
increased, social mobility became more common
Slave trade abolished in 1807 in Britain
Women became more limited to their traditional roles

Nationalist Movements and Other Developments

Nationalism was strong after Napoleonic era
France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Russia had unified
Italy and Germany, which were city-states took longer to unify and alter balance of
European power
Italy: Count Camillo Cavour named prime minister of Sardinia by Victor
Emmanuel II who pushed for nationalism - after Giuseppe Garibaldi, another
nationalist overthrew other Italian kingdoms, a lot of Italy was unified in 1861
Germany: Prussia, which controlled a lot of present-day Germany, under the rule
of William I who appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister, defeated
Austria and engaged in the Franco-Prussian War to create the new German
Empire
New emperor William II forced Bismarck to resign and built a huge
military force
Other Nationalist Movements:
 Russia:
Romanov czars had absolute power in 19th century
Alexander II began reforms - Emancipation Edict: abolished serfdom but had
little effect
Small middle class began to emerge which led to an intellectual political group
The People’s Will assassinating Alexander II
In response, Alexander III started Russification: all had to learn the Russian
language and convert to Russian Orthodoxy
Ottoman Empire: was at danger of collapse so Britain and France worked to maintain it to
prevent Russia from gaining control over Mediterranean

The Growth of Nationalism

Desire of people of common cultural heritage to form independent nation-state/empires
that protects their cultural identity
Had major influence and effects all over the world

Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization

In Search of Natural Resources
Europe has coal and iron for power and factory equipment, but needed raw materials that
didn’t grow there - solution = colonization
Colonization has given industrial countries great wealth
Europe had colonized nations on every continent - depleted raw materials in these nations
at extreme speed and destroyed and polluted environments
 Transnational Businesses: international corporations that strengthened Europe’s economic
power in Asia and Africa

European Justification
Europe was very ethnocentric - other cultures were barbaric and uncivilized, even as
progressives were denouncing the slave trade - why?
1. Social Darwinists: applied natural selection to sociology - there were dominant
races or classes , therefore Britain was the most powerful/fit
2. Moral obligation to civilize others - Rudyard Kipling’s poem “White Man’s
Burden” described colonization as justified

European Imperialism in India

India had many luxuries to Europeans - tea, sugar, silk, salt, jute
India was vulnerable to external powers after wars in 18th century Mughal empire and
religious conflict
France and England battled each other in Seven Year’s War for colonial superiority and
Britain won
British East India Company: joint-stock company like a multinational corporation - had
exclusive British trade rights in India - led by Robert Clive
Britain started slowly taking over Mughal Empire territory and setting up administrative
regions through empire - first, island of Ceylon, then Punjab Northern India, then Pakistan
and Afghanistan
Sepoy Mutiny: Indians who worked for British as soldiers were called Sepoys - they rebelled
against British Muslim/Hindu disrespect in 1857, but it failed
British then made all of India a crown colony - Queen Victoria made Empress of
India above almost 300 million Indian subjects
Mughal Empire ended when last ruler Bahadur Shah II was sent into exile
India became model of British imperialism - upper castes taught English, Christianity
spread, industrialization and urbanization - but more and more Indians dreamed of being
free from Britain
1885: group of Indians formed Indian National Congress to fight for
independence - wouldn’t be achieved until mid-20th century

European Imperialism in China

 Up until 1830s, Europe could only trade with China in city of Canton - China was relatively
isolationist, until Europe gained industrial power and barged in with weapons
Opium Wars: British traders brought Opium to China in 1773 and widespread addiction was
caused - forbidden and seized in 1839
Britain wanted to continue trade, so brought war to China
Treaty of Nanjing: China forced to sign unequal treaty that gave Britain
considerable rights to expand trade with China
Hong Kong declared crown possession of Britain in 1843
Second Opium War occurred in 1856 for four years when Britain tried to further
trade and China lost again - all of China opened to trade
British takeover caused Chinese to turn on their government’s failings
White Lotus Rebellions (beginning of 18th century): Buddhists who were
frustrated over taxes and government corruption
Taiping Rebellion (mid-18th century): rebels led by religious zealot who almost
succeeded in taking down Manchu government
Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s): Manchu Dynasty attempt to get its act
together, which failed
Korea declared independence from China in 1876
Sino-French War (1883): Chinese lost control of Vietnam
Defeated by Japan in Sino-Japanese War
Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895): China forced to hand control of Taiwan to Japan
and give them trading rights
France, Germany, Russia, Britain took their own spheres of influence in China -
not quite colonies as Manchu Dynasty still had authority
in 1900, US pledged to support sovereignty of Chinese government and equal
trading to prevent full British takeover (Open Door Policy) - despite barring
Chinese immigrants from US in 1882 (Chinese Exclusion Act)
Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, or Boxers: Chinese peasant nationalists
attempted to rebel by slaughtering Christian missionaries and controlling foreign
embassies in response to government’s defeats and concessions to the West, but failed
Boxer Protocol: China forced to pay Europeans and Japanese with rebellion
costs
Chinese culture also started to crumble - imperial government ended in 1911 and a republic
was established in China

Japanese Imperialism
Japan kept Europeans away in 17th and 18th centuries - until European and US appetite for
power intensified and Commodore Matthew Perry arrived from US in a steamboat in 1853 -
Japan felt obligated to join industrialized world
Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) was a trade agreement with the West
Samurai revolted against shogun who ratified it and restored Emperor Meiji to
power
Meiji Restoration: era of Japanese westernization - Japan became a world power
1870s: built railways and steamships, abolished samurai warrior class
Prioritized military power - took control of Korea and Taiwan from China in 1895 -
military pageantry became a cultural movement
1890s: Japan became powerful enough to reduce European and US influence

European Imperialism in Africa

 Interior Africa remained unknown to Europeans - costal regions used for limited trade, ship
stopping points, and the slave trade
1807-1820: most European nations abolished slave trade as Enlightenment principles
gained more force - slavery abolished a few decades later
No new enslaved people entered Europe but those still in slavery were not free
until mid-century
Former slaves returned to Africa or established their own nations
South Africa: Dutch first arrived and settled Cape Town - British seized it in 1795
South African Dutch (Boers) moved northeast and discovered diamonds and
gold - British followed and fought the Boer War (1899-1902) to gain rights to
resources, which they won
Egypt: when Napoleon tried to take control of Egypt in 18th century during the weak
Ottoman rule, Muhammad Ali defeated the French and the ruling Ottoman Empire in 1805 -
began industrialization and agriculture expansions
efforts just temporarily halted by Abbas I
Suez Canal constructed with French and completed in 1869 - connected
Mediterranean to Indian Ocean (eventually British took control of it too)

Berlin Conference
Otto van Bismarck hosted European powers in Berlin in 1884 to discuss land claims in
African Congo - encouraging colonialism
By 1914, almost all of Africa was colonized by Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain,
Portugal, and Belgium (except Ethiopia and Liberia)
Europeans added substantial infrastructure to the continent, but stripped Africa of
resources, most exercised direct rule and implementation of customs over African people
(except British who were already busy with India)
Europeans disregarded African boundaries, cut tribal land in half or forced enemy tribes
together, ignoring history and culture
Traditional African culture also started falling apart
US Foreign Policy
Monroe Doctrine: US President Monroe declared Western Hemisphere off-limits to
Europeans in 1823 - Britain agreed out of fear of Spain’s potential actions
Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine: US would be responsible for intervening in
financial disputes between Americas and Europe, if to maintain peace because Europe was
still investing in Latin industry
US was exercising own imperialism over Latin America - built their Panama Canal in
Panama
US launched Spanish-American War in 1898 to aid Cuba in their conflict with Spain -
defeated Spain and gained control over Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba (given
independence in exchange for construction of US military bases)

Unit 7: Global Conflict

The World War I Era
At beginning of 20th century, most of world was colonized by Europe or had been colonized
by Europe - everywhere was connected to instability in Europe
European countries had had feuds, but industrialism and rise in nationalism caused military
build-up and more powerful weapons, alliances and power-grabbing rivals increasing
Triple Alliance (1880s): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy - protect against France
France-Russian alliance to keep Germany in check
Schlieffen Plan: Germany’s attack on France through Belgium, a neutral country
Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia - later joined by Japan
Ottoman Empire was in bad shape and kept losing territory - Greece, Slavic areas declaring
independence, countries disagreeing on land arrangements and allies
Bosnia and Herzegovina still under control on Austria-Hungary, as decided by
Berlin Conference of 1878
Austria-Hungary Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited Bosnia and was assassinated by
Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip - war was already on the horizon and this was the final
blow
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia - Russia was allies with Serbia - France,
Germany, Britain joined to honour their alliances (Italy later joined the Triple
Entente in 1915)
Central Powers Alliance: Ottoman Empire, Germany, Austria-Hungary
Over 40 countries joined the war effort because in part of widespread colonial connections
US joined the Allies in 1917 after Germany sunk British boat Lusitania in 1915 which had
over 100 American passengers on board and kept sinking American ships attempting to
bring resources to Britain - final push was Germany trying to get Mexico to join the war in
1916 (Zimmermann telegram - a secret telegram between German diplomats saying
Mexico could regain territory taken by US if they joined forces)
Previously had isolationism policy (neutrality, focusing on internal affairs
instead)
The Great War lasted until Germany and Central Powers gave up in November 1918
8.5 million soldiers were killed
20 million civilians died
The Treaty of Versailles: signed in 1919 - official end to WWI
Germany was to pay war reparations, release territory, downsize military to
prevent them from rising to power again - poverty and resentment in Germany
led to Hitler’s rise
Austria-Hungary divided into other nations like Czechoslovakia
Departure from President Wilson’s Fourteen Points, more focused on future
peace and workable balance of power - but was disapproved of by Britain and
France who put strict punishments on Germany
President Wilson called for formation of council of nations called League of Nations to
preserve peace and establish humanitarian goals, but was not widely accepted (even by US)
Russian Revolution
Socialists began to organize after Czar Nicholas II’s forced resignation in 1917,
resentment was strong among working class
Had lost war against Japan over Manchuria in 1904
Fired at peaceful protestors in 1905 (Blood Sunday)
Alexander Kerensky established a provisional government - ineffective because
it disagreed with the local councils, soviets, who represented workers, peasants,
and soldiers
Socialist party is known as the Bolsheviks - led by Marxist leader Vladimir Lenin
April Theses: issues by Lenin - demanded peace, land for peasants, power to
soviets
within 6 months took power of government - soon to be called Soviet
Union
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918): armistice with Germany - ceded part of western
Russia to Germany so they dropped out of WWI
 Counterrevolutions began occurring in Russian empire - Bolsheviks created Red
Army, military force under Leon Trotsky to defeat counterrevolutions
Soviet Union became a nation lacking of trust by Western neighbours with a
powerful army
When Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, a movement to reclaim Turkish culture
spawned a genocide of Armenian minority and a shift to Turkish nationalism - which
resulted in loss of most of remaining land in peace negotiations
Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk): led successful military against invading Greece and
overthrew Ottoman Empire to become first president of Turkey

World War II Era

Stalin and the Soviet Union
Lenin first instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1920s - allowed farmers to sell
portions of grain for profit - successful, but Lenin died and new Communist leader, Joseph
Stalin discarded it
Five-Year Plans: taking over private farms for state-owned enterprises (collectivization) -
really was totalitarianism
Stalin industrialized the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) - relied on terror (secret
police, bogus trials, assassinations)

The Great Depression

War was expensive and Europe owed a lot of money to America (especially France and
Germany)
Money was based on credit, loans that would never be repaid = US stock market crash in
1929 leading to international catastrophe
US and Germany hit the hardest - 1/3 of workforce unemployed, loss of trust in government
= fascism

Fascism
Main idea: destroy will of individual in favour of the people
Wanted a unified society like communists, but did not eliminate private property or class
distinctions
Pushed for extreme nationalism - often on racial identity
Fascism in Italy
First fascist state - founded by Benito Mussolini in 1919
Squad called Blackshirts fought socialist and communist organizations to win
over factory and land owners
The Italian king named Mussolini Prime Minister
Faced very little opposition and took over Parliament in 1922

Rise of Hitler
Revolt when German emperor was abdicated after WWI - a conservative democratic
republic took over (Weimar Republic)
Mussolini’s success in Italy was influencing Germany - Nationalist Socialist Party (Nazis)
rose to power in 1920s
People of Germany were rejecting Weimar Republic elected body the Reichstag due to
economic crisis
 Adolf Hitler became head of Nazi Party - believed in extreme nationalism and superior race
- believed the Aryan race was the most superior race
By 1932, Nazis dominated German government and Hitler became leader of Reichstag in
1933
Seized control of the government - his fascist rule is known as the Third Reich

Appeasement?
Hitler began rebuilding military (against Treaty of Versailles) and withdrew Germany from
League of Nations
Spain was in turmoil after fall of Spanish monarchy - nationalist army under General
Francisco Franco took control of large parts of Spain - established a dictatorship in Spain in
1939 with help from Germany and Italy
Hitler continued restoring Germany: took back the Rhineland part of Germany, formed
alliance with militant Japan, annexed Austria, given Sudetenland at Munich Conference of
1938 (Hitler, Mussolini, Neville Chamberlin of England) to cease his expansionist activities
(appeasement) - did not work
Hitler invaded rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939 and Italy invaded Albania in 1939
Germans and Soviets signed a pact to stay out of each other’s countries (Nazi-Soviet Pact)
and agreed to divide rest of Europe’s land between them
Germany invaded Poland and Britain and France then declared war on Germany - start of
WWII

Japan
Became a world power when accepting an alliance with Britain in 1905
Economy thrived after WWI until the Great Depression - Japanese militarists gained
momentum
Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and renamed in Manchukuo
Withdrew from League of Nations and signed Anti-Comintern Pact (against communism)
with Germany, beginning their alliance
In 1937, began war on China which eventually merged into WWII

Review of WWII
Hitler’s blitzkrieg technique destroyed everything in its path - by early 1940 Germany had
control of Poland (half with USSR), Holland, Belgium, France
Britain’s PM Winston Churchill did not give in to Germany’s pressures - even with German
airstrikes from their more powerful airforce (Battle of Britain)
Germany invaded Greece in 1941, breaking their deal with Soviet Union, so they invaded the
Soviet Union too
US didn’t want to get involved, but froze Japan’s assets in US to respond to their hostility -
Japan entered Tripartite Pact with Rome and Berlin, making the war worldwide
in response to US sanctions, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in 1941 and
declared war with US
US began working on Manhattan Project: development of the atomic bomb
1943: US and Britain take control of Italy
1944: US, Britain, and Canada land on French beaches (D-day) and eventually liberate France
1945: Allied forces close in on Germany and end Europe war when Hitler commits suicide
To end war in Pacific, US drops atomic bomb on city of Hiroshima in Japan - when Japan
refused to surrender, they dropped another bomb on Nagasaki, causing them to surrender

The Consequences
The Holocaust
Millions of Jews under German control were rounded up and killed in concentration camps
to create the Aryan race

The Peace Settlement

US and Soviet Union became superpowers and Germany and Japan forced to demilitarize

Europe Torn to Shreds

US instituted Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe (only accepted by Western Europe nations)
and rebuilt their economies in less than a decade

Decline of Colonialism
War inspired native populations to rise against their oppressors

Big Changes for Women

Women took over the workforce while men were fighting - after the war, many women kept
their jobs

Creation of International Organizations

United Nations, established in 1945, to prevent break out of another great war - goal was to
mediate and intervene in international disputes
UN published Universal Declaration of Human Rights in response to Holocaust
World Bank, International Monetary Fund, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs also
formed to manage a global economy

Cold War
US or Soviet Union did not want each other to spread its influence beyond their borders, so
they were strategizing how to contain each other - lasting for the next 50 years

Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization

Communism and the Cold War
Cold War lasted from 1945 to early 90s
US and Soviet Union tried to get the rest of the world to side with them
An arms based race between - nuclear arsenals became large enough to wipe out the whole
world

Power Grab
Biggest conflict over future security - both wanted their worldview to dominate:
US: capitalism, democracy
USSR: communism/totalitarianism
At conferences in Yalta and Potsdam in 1945, parts of Eastern Europe were divided among
Allied forces - Soviet Union demanded control of its neighbouring states (Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria), which the US disagreed with
 1948: French, US, British sections of Germany merged into one, while Eastern Germany was
under Soviet control - they cut of access to Berlin from Western side (Berlin Blockade)
US flew in resources to trapped Western side (Berlin Airlift) until Soviets
relented and split Berlin in half - built a wall on their side (Berlin Wall)
East Vs. West
Europe was clearly divided in East and West
East: East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary =
Soviet bloc
West: Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, West
Germany, Greece, Turkey = Western bloc
Truman Doctrine (1947) said US would aid countries threatened by communism
(containment) - Western bloc formed military alliance NATO for this
In response, Eastern bloc formed Warsaw Pact
Two alliances became heavily weaponized - line between them was called the
Iron Curtain
Many countries were part of nonalignment - accepted investments from US and
USSR but didn’t side with either
Helped many former colonies find cooperative economic relations
Bandung Conference (1955): leaders from Africa and Asia meet to
discuss these partnerships - Non-Aligned Movement

China
After fall of Manchu Dynasty in 1911, Sun Yat-sen led the Chinese Revolution of 1911 for
China to become more Westernized and powerful
Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles of the People: nationalism, socialism, democracy
Established his own political party for his own goals - the Kuomintang (KMT)
Chiang Kai-shek established KMT in 1920s while Japanese and Soviets also struggled to
control China
US helped drive Japan out, but communists and KMT continued to fight Chinese Civil War
for next 4 years
Communists recruited millions of peasants under Mao Zedong to drive KMT out of China
into Taiwan (where they established Republic of China)
Mainland China became People’s Republic of China and the largest communist nation in
the world
Taiwan and People’s Republic of China are still separated
Mao Zedong
At first was successful in increasing China’s productivity and agriculture
Implemented Great Leap Forward by creating communes (local governments) to
achieve a Marxist state - they couldn’t keep up with their agricultural quotas, so
they lied about it causing starvation of over 30 million Chinese people
After withdraw of Soviet support, military became his focus and capitalism was
implemented into economy - Mao didn’t like it
Mao’s Cultural Revolution: got rid of all Western influences to prevent privileged
classes - universities shut down and most worked as farmers from 1960s to 70s
Deng Xiaoping
New leader - focused on restructuring economy, reimplemented education
Free-market capitalism elements, property ownership, foreign relations - but still
largely communist
Tiananmen Square Massacre: hundreds of protesters for democratic reform
killed by government troops
Division of Korea - Korean War
After WWII, was held half by Soviets and half by US until Korea could achieve stability
Soviet communist regime in North Korea
US democracy in South Korea
North Korea attacked South Korea in 1950 to unite the two countries - United Nations,
under General MacArthur, supported South Korea and China supported North Korea -
armistice didn’t happen until 1953
North Korea remains an isolated and dangerous nation today

Vietnam War
After WWII, France attempt to hold on to colony of Indochina, but Vietminh nationalists
fought back until it was agreed to split the nation into two
Communists - North under Ho Chi Minh
Democrats - South under Ngo Dinh Diem
Soon war broke out between them - France and US supported South, but eventually the
South was taken over by communist Viet Cong fighters, which looked very bad for US

Genocide in Cambodia
Communism took over Cambodia and communist faction Khmer Rouge took over the
government - goal to get rid of professional class an religious minorities led to 2 million
deaths by the government

The Cuban Revolution

US remained involved in Cuban affairs after Spanish-American War under Platt Amendment
US supported the Batista Dictatorship from 1939 to 1959 until peasants began revolting in
1956 under leadership of Fidel Castro - led to Cuban Revolution in 1959
Castro promoted democracy but immediately established a communist dictatorship
instead, so the US imposed economic bans on trade with Cuba - strengthened Cuba’s ties
with Soviets instead
US organized Bay of Pigs Invasion with a small force of Cuban exiles, authorized by
President Kennedy, to overthrow Castro - they were immediately captured
In response, Soviets installed missiles in Cuba and when US found out, they established a
navel blockade around the island - Cuban Missile Crisis
Soviets eventually backed down when US agreed to not invade Cuba - closest
brush with nuclear war

Cold War Tensions and Democratization in Latin

America
US’s capitalistic destruction of resources in Latin America stirred radical political parties in
Mexico, Peru, Venezuela, Brazil - US was the imperialist “Good Neighbour”
US distracted by wars and Cold War led to single-party rule in Mexico, brutal militaristic
leaders in Argentina and Chile, and socialist democracies in Nicaragua and Guatemala
US focused on Nicaragua - ground for Bay of Pigs Invasion, targeting of
Sandinista guerrillas in 80s
Reliance on export economies has resulted in poor domestic economies and debt
Only in 2000 did Mexico have first multi-party election - opposition, PAN party, won
Cold War Ends
People in Eastern Europe, under communism, began to revolt over poor living conditions
compared to the West, democracy, and self-determination in the 80s
Poland

A Solidarity movement under Lech Walesa brought thousands of workers wanting reform of
communist economic system
Not until reform-minded Mieczyslaw Rakowski became the Prime Minister did Solidarity
become legalized in 1989
Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Solidarity member, became PM in first open elections
Communism fell in 1990, Lech Walsea become president, and economy improved swiftly
German Reunification
Decline of communism in Soviet bloc led to East Germany cutting ties with Soviets
Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989 and East and West reunified
Germany now focused on peace and economic reform instead of violence

The Soviet Union Collapses

Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1986 and urged restructuring of Soviet economy -
elements of private ownership instituted, nuclear arms treaties with US
When Poland and other former Soviet nations separated from USSR, Soviet Union
disintegrated in 1991
Mostly peaceful, but ethnic cleansing occurred in the Balkans and many Muslims were
murdered by Christian Serbians - led to UN troop involvement
Most new countries formed constitutional democracies, Cold War was over, and US
emerged as the world’s only superpowers
Democracy and Authoritarian Rule in Russia
New Russia looked like a perfect federal state, but their abrupt intro to
democracy and capitalism led to corruption, high unemployment, poverty,
widespread crime
First president, Boris Yeltsin, had the challenge of reforming Russia
Yeltsin resigned in 1999 and former KGB agent Vladimir Putin became the head
and has between the President and Prime Minister since then
Has caused significant unrest in relations with other nations

Independence Movements and Developments in Asia

and Africa
Indian Subcontinent
Indian National Congress, mostly Hindu, established in 1885 and Muslim League in 1906 to
increase rights of Indians under colonial rule
In 1919, Amritsar Massacre catapulted resistance - 319 Indians killed by the British during
a peaceful protest
Mohandas Gandhi became an important figure in resistance - philosophy of passive
resistance (demonstrations, boycotts instead of violence)
Hindu and Muslim groups disagreed while fighting for the same cause - Muslims pushed
for their own nation called Pakistan
Independence Won by India
Britain granted independence to India after WWII
 Muslims and Hindus disagreed with how the independent nation should function
- one group wanted unity between Hindus and Muslims, the other wanted to
partition the subcontinent and form a separate Muslim nation (led by
Muhammad Ali Jinnah)
British separated the subcontinent into three parts: India (Hindu), and Pakistan
(Muslim) in two parts
Many died by religious persecution as they migrated across religious lines -
created international conflict between Pakistan and India

Africa
In 1910, South Africa established its own constitution, that was discriminatory to native
Africans, and in 1912, the African National Congress was formed to oppose European
colonialism
in 1950s, independence movement across Africa grew and Gamal Nasser, general in
Egyptian army, overthrew Egypt king and established a republic - inspired other Islamic
nationalists along Mediterranean to also become independent
Many Africans were undereducated and did not have skills to build productive, independent
nations and European influence had caused major destruction in social dynamics
Algeria fought war for independence against France from 1954-1962
Nigeria and Ghana negotiated their freedom from Britain
Kenya also negotiated constitution with Britain
Angola and Belgian Congo overthrew colonial governments causing civil wars
Zimbabwe was among last to establish majority African rule in 1980
53/54 of African nations belong to African Union - replaced Organization of African Unity
Still, Chad, Sudan, Uganda, Somalia, Rwanda, Congo continue to be wrecked by
civil wars
Rwanda
Conflict between Tutsi and Hutu groups (Tutsi, 15% of pop., governed the Hutu)
caused ethnic strife, genocide, and human rights violations after colonial
authorities left
Hutu revolted and killed as many as 800000 Tutsis over 100 days of genocide
Apartheid in South Africa
Union of South Africa formed in 1910 combing British and Dutch colonies, the
year after South Africa Act, completely excluded Black people from politics
1923: segregation established and enforced
1926: Black people banned from certain occupations
1948: system of apartheid (racial separation) established - Black
people forced into the worst parts of the country and city slums
Nelson Mandela became leader of African National Congress in 1950s
determined to abolish apartheid
Sharpeville massacre: 67 protesters against apartheid killed - African National
Congress then supported guerrilla warfare (resulted in Mandela being jailed in
1964)
Mandela was released in 1990 and apartheid crumbled - he was the first
president elected in a free and open election

Middle East
After WWI, France was put in charge of Syria and Lebanon, Britain in charge of Palestine,
Jordan, and Iraq (Iran between Britain and Russia) - Arabia united itself as a Saudi Kingdom
Creation of Modern Israel:
Many Jews left Israel region as Palestine became more and more Islamic
 During WWI, Zionists (Jewish nationalists) convinced Arthur Balfour (Britain’s
foreign secretary) to issue Balfour Declaration of 1917 - declared that Jewish
people had right to live in Palestine, without displacing current Palestinians
Jews fleeing antisemitic mobs (pogroms) began flooding into Palestine, a lot
more came during the 30s to escape Hitler
Jewish Wait for a State Ends in 1948 - two Palestines, one for Jews and one for Muslims,
officially created
As soon as David Ben-Gurion became first prime minister of Israel, Muslims
attacked Israel (1948 Arab-Israeli War)
Israel fought back and eventually controlled most of Palestine, while Jordan held
remaining portions (West Bank)
1967 Six-Day War resulted in Israelis taking over all of Palestine - West Bank,
Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip (Egypt), Golan Heights (Syria)
In 1977, Egypt recongized Israel’s right to exist when Prime Minister Menachem
Begin of Israel and President Anwar Sadat of Egypt signed the Camp David
Accords - a huge blow to Palestinians (did not recognize West Bank in accords)
Since then, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), dedicated to reclaiming
land and Palestinian state, has been unsuccessful in negotiating a homeland
In 2000, violence continued and Israel PM Ariel Sharon constructed a wall
between Palestinian West Bank and Israel
In 2005, Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas signed a cease-fire with Israel
after previous president Yasser Arafat failed to do so
Intense division, military violence, and terrorism still exists between the groups
and no advancements have been made
Iranian Revolution
When Reza Shah Pahlavi rose to power and lead the shah in 1925 in Iran,
Westernization was introduced to the nation
In 1960s, rights of women increased drastically which angered Islamic
fundamentalists
President Jimmy Carter of US visited Iran to congratulate them on their
modernization, which was the breaking point for fundamentalists - in 1979
Iranian Revolution ousted current shah and went back to a theocracy led by
Ayatollah Khomeini
Human rights advancements were reversed and women went back to traditional
roles - Qu’ran became basis of legal system
Iraq soon after invaded Iran over border disputes - Iraq received quiet support
from US but still led to 8-year Iran-Iraq War
Power struggle still continues in Iran and American-led war that began in Iraq in
2003 complicated matters further
Oil
Middle East was sitting on more than two-thirds of world’s oil reserves
Multinational corporations rushed to gain drilling rights in 20th century
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, and Iraq started to earn billions annually, so they
organized with some oil-exporting nations to form a petroleum cartel (OPEC)
leading to more money and modernization

Unit 9: Globalization
International Terrorism and War
 After WWII, there was an increasing interest in maintaining international security -
organizations like NATO, United Nations, International Criminal Court in The Hague
(prosecutes war crimes), and NGOs (Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders) to
provide international aid to those in need
War in the Gulf
Iraq wanted to gain more control of oil reserves so they invaded Kuwait in 1990
under leadership of Saddam Hussein
United Nations sent forces to drive Iraqis out in early 1991 - now called Persian
Gulf War
UN liberated Kuwait and put severe limitations on Iraq’s military and economic
activity (although Hussein remained in power for another 10 years)
In 2003, coalition of countries, mostly US and Britain invaded Iraq to oust
Hussein - Hussein was captured in December 2003 and a democratic
government was formed in 2005
Despite conflicts and terrorism between Sunni, Shiites, and Kurds groups, a
Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani and a Shia minister, Nouri ai-Maliki were
elected, but they still have faced a number of challenges
Taliban, Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden
In early 1980s, Soviets sent troops to Afghanistan under at request of Marxist
military leader Nur Muhammad Taraki
Afghanis opposed communism and fought back until Soviets withdrew troops -
left a power void that warring factions vied to fill
Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist regime, filled the void after 14 years of
fighting
Provided a safe haven for Osama bin Laden, the Saudi leader of the international
terrorist network Al Qaeda, who specifically despised the US
US:
1. Supports Israel
2. Had troops stationed in Saudi Arabia
3. Is the primary agent of globalization believed to be
infecting Islamic culture
On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attacked US by hijacking 4 US planes and
flying 2 of them into the World Trade Centre in New York, 1 into the Pentagon,
and 1 into a field in Pennsylvania - 3000 people died
US immediately declared a war on terrorism and invaded Afghanistan
- the Taliban was removed from power and Osama bin Laden was
killed, but Al Qaeda still survives
Many terror attacks linked to Islamic fundamentalists still occur throughout
Europe and the Middle East

World Trade and Cultural Exchange

End of Cold War and the Internet/technology resulted in a new and strong wave of global
connection - last obstacle to true global interaction
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and European Union (EU) were created to
unite global currency/trade further
English became the language of global business and communication
EU banded Europe into a single market to give US some competition in 90s
Has 3 branches: executive, legislative, judicial
Eurozone, a monetary union formed in 1999, included all but 3 nations (UK,
Sweden, Denmark)
 Economies faltered again during the economic crisis in late 2000s - stronger economies
like Germany were able to remain stable while over-extended economies collapsed badly
Global Culture
Some significant examples of pop culture are:
1. The Olympics
2. World Cup Soccer
3. Reggae Music
4. Bollywood
5. Social Media
6. McDonald’s
Rise of China and India
China had become a huge economic and industrial force in recent years - special
economic zones developed to be exempt from communist rules and have since
become worldwide production centres worth 100s of billions of dollars
Although, China has severely limited internet freedom and remains
aged politically
India is one of the fastest growing economies - poor until the 90s, highly
educated Indians brought the world of tech in Silicon Valley to India and made it
a global hub for technology
Both are now nuclear powers with large military forces, but both also have
serious problems with poverty and global emissions
Global Alphabet Soup
General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GAFF) - later World Trade Organization
- developed to reduce barriers on international trade - has 153 member states
Group of Six (G6): forum for world’s major industrialized democracies - original
members US, Britain, West Germany, Italy, Japan, France
Become G7 in 1977 (Canada) and G8 in 1997 (Russia) but became
G7 again after Russia’s involvement in Ukraine
G20 is separate - 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors

Environmental Change
Global integration has caused global environmental concerns
Green revolution of 50s and 60s led to destructions of traditional landscapes, reduced
species diversity, and social conflicts to produce inexpensive food
Global warming is worsening at the fastest pace ever due to human activity - outcome is
uncertain, but industrialized countries are not doing enough to limit their environmental
damage

Global Health Crises

Epidemics in countries with poor sanitation are still an issue - WHO (World Health
Organization) works to combat them
AIDS is a major crisis - 25% of African adults live with AIDS and treatment is expensive
Global health issues highlight the global disparities as the disproportionately affect low-
income individuals

Age of the Computer

The personal computer was developed in the 1980s, followed by the Internet
In the 1990s, computers became commonplace in homes
Social Media has changed the way information spreads and has brought people closer
together
Internet has also been a method of government surveillance and storing of user data, which
is considered by many a breech of privacy