LESSON FOUR

4. BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

4.1 Introduction
The preservation of biological diversity, also known as biodiversity, is a major global concern
due to the realization that this diversity is rapidly diminishing. Human activities, especially in
agriculture and urbanization, contribute to the extinction of species and the significant alteration
of habitats. The combination of population growth and increased consumption further
exacerbates the issue of species extinction. The destruction of biodiversity is of great concern
because the species, genes, and ecosystems that are lost are non-renewable. Additionally, the
interdependence of different species and ecosystems means that the extinction of one can have
consequences for others. This lesson delves into the troubling concerns surrounding biodiversity
and the value of conservation.

4.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
4.2.1 Explain the concept of biodiversity and what causes biodiversity loss.
4.2.2 Identify human factors that pose a threat to biodiversity
4.2.3. Evaluate the values of biodiversity
4.2.4. Identify the cause of extinction, steps of of stemming species loss and the categories of
species that are at risk of extinction

4.2.1 Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of living organisms and the ecological complexes
in which they exist. It encompasses the heritable variations resulting from genes and traits that
organisms pass on to their offspring across different climates and vegetation zones on Earth.
Genetic changes occur over long periods, often taking millions of years due to interactions with
the environment and other organisms under changing climatic, geological, and biological
conditions. This forms the basis of evolution. Biodiversity can be understood at three levels:
genes, which represent the hereditary information responsible for different characteristics;
species, which are distinct combinations of characteristics found in individual plants and
animals; and ecosystems, which consist of all the species interacting within different
environmental habitats.
4.2.2 Importance of biodiversity
Today, there is a heightened awareness of the need to conserve biodiversity due to its intrinsic
value. The value of biodiversity can be categorized into two distinct categories:
Eco-centric values stem from the ethical perspective that it is morally wrong for humans to
destroy other species, as animals have their own inherent rights and deserve a life relatively
free from suffering.
Anthropogenic reasons for conserving biodiversity include aesthetic value, environmental
services, economic value, evolutionary significance, socio-cultural importance, biotechnological
uses, and ecological services, among others.
Activity 4.2.2- Different uses and values of biodiversity
Title The Importance of biodiversity
Purpose The purpose of this activity is to outline the benefits and values
of biodiversity.
Brief summary of overall task Watch Video 1 and Video 2. This activity will expose you to the
uses and benefits of biodiversity.
Spark

Benefits of biodiversity
Individual task a) Mention 5 uses of plants to man.
b) Give 2 examples of socio-cultural uses of biodiversity.
c) Briefly describe 3 ecosystem services of biodiversity.

4.2.3 Human factors that threaten biodiversity

Biodiversity loss can be attributed to three primary factors:
 Habitat loss
 Overexploitation through excessive harvesting or hunting
  The introduction of non-native species.
Loss of biodiversity reflects an imbalance between human needs and nature's capacity, resulting
in species extinction, reduced genetic diversity, and diminished cultural diversity. Habitat
destruction refers to disturbances in the physical environment where species reside, ranging
from minor chemical changes caused by air pollution to severe physical alterations that
eliminate numerous species within an ecosystem. Deforestation, for instance, through burning
and clearing of trees in tropical rainforests, leads to the destruction of habitats for numerous
species. The loss of rainforests, which cover only 7% of the Earth's surface but contain over
50% of the world's total species, is a significant loss of biodiversity.

Habitat disturbance usually occurs in fragmented patches or fragments, leading to the isolation
of remaining habitat areas. If the distance between fragments is extensive, reproduction may
be hindered as species struggle to reach each other for mating. Habitat disturbance is not
limited to land; water pollution negatively affects fish and marine populations and species
diversity in lakes and rivers. Coral reefs, for example, face extinction due to water pollution if
not addressed. Introduced species, also known as exotic or non-native species, are organisms
intentionally or accidentally introduced to an area. Once established, removing an exotic species
becomes challenging, and they often become a major cause of extinction. Examples include the
"mathenge" weed, which has led to the near extinction of indigenous plant species. The
introduction of the Nile perch in Lake Victoria has caused the extinction of over 35 native fish
species.

Overhunting, driven by sport or economic reasons, involves excessive shooting, trapping, or

poisoning of organisms. Large animal species are particularly affected by overhunting, as their
low abundance and reproductive rates contribute to drastic reductions in their populations.

Activity 4.2.3- Human activities that threaten biodiversity

Title Human mediated biodiversity loss
Purpose The purpose of this activity is to understand the human activities
that threaten biodiversity.
Brief summary of overall task Watch Video 1 and Video 2
This activity will expose you to the importance of biodiversity
and human activities that threaten biodiversity in the world.
Spark

Give local examples of each threat.

Individual task a) Mention 3 reasons why biodiversity is important.
b) List three local and three global factors that threaten
biodiversity.
Interaction begins Provide positive and constructive feedback on the team learners
‘views and ideas.
Schedule and time This task should take one hour
Next Different uses and values of biodiversity

4.2.4 Role of Ecology in Conservation

The importance of ecology to conservation can be considered at three levels of application:
 Conservation of species
 Conservation of ecosystem, and
 Conservation of the biosphere
These three areas are interconnected but have different aspects that make the distinction
become more or less important at different levels of conservation.

a. Conservation of Species
In geological time the fossil records shows that new species are continually evolving and others
becoming extinct. Extinction of a species comes when the last individual dies. Occasionally a
major extinction event occurred when very large numbers of species disappeared suddenly from
the fossil record. Some of the factor that are thought to have caused these catastrophic events
are:
 1. Changes in world climate
2. Loss of habitat, for example, when continental drift destroyed large area of marine
shelf
3. The effects of giant meteors or volcanic eruptions

According to Chapman and Reiss (1995) the greatest extinction even might have occurred
about 250 million years ago when over 90% of fossilisable marine species went extinct. Since
the evolution of human society, an unknown number of species has become extinct. About
150,000 extinctions have been recorded since AD 16600. These are mostly mammals and birds,
with the unknown number of less conspicuous or unnamed species that have vanished. Some of
these extinctions were due to direct human interference. For example, the often fat and birds
such the dodo (Raphus cucullatus), the flightless birds of Mauritius suffered greatly from human
predation.

Extinction by indirect human influence is thought to be more widespread. This is often due to:
 Introduction of species, for example, rabbits and dogs that caused many disasters in
many isolated small continents or islands ecosystems.
 Loss of available habitants as they affect the whole community. Some species such as
weeds, a few birds and other adaptable animals have managed to thrive in the new
environments produced by agriculture and urban development. Most species however,
cannot survive after the loss of their habitats. For some, this has reduced numbers to
the point of extinction.

According to Chapman and Reiss (1995) the decline in the number of individuals and the local
extinctions of populations may finally lead to a situation where there is only one population left.
A single population is susceptible to:
 Accidents
 Freak weather
 A virulent disease
 Fire
 Flood, and so on
  If a species is widespread the destruction of population produces a temporary
fluctuation in numbers: emigrants from other populations will probably find a new
population to replace the old one.
 If a species is rare, the loss of a whole population may be a disaster from which the
species never recovers.
 If a species is threatened with extinction it is important for ecologists to ask:
1. Why is the species rare?
2. Why is it declining in numbers?

The last question is important for conservation because only by understanding the decline can
one take appropriate steps to build up the population numbers again. It require a detailed
understanding of the autecology (ecological relationship of a single species) that sadly is least
understood for endangered species.

Many populations fluctuate considerably in size due to environmental factors. It takes several
years of study to determine whether a species is declining in the long term or just undergoing
short-term and reversible changes. The time-scale required to answer the questions may also
be longer than species left if it is seriously threatened.

Species conservation should begin immediately when a species is found to be declining in

numbers but not yet threatened with extinction. However, sometimes if the decline is very rapid
and a species is well known, concern for its survival is felt before it is endangered. Such an
example is the Africa elephant (Loxodonta Africana). In the 1960s, the elephant population of
Africa were thriving and many elephants were shot when they encroached on to farmlands. This
did not seem to affect overall population sizes and the African elephant was not considered a
threatened species. In early 1970s the price of ivory soared and more elephants were killed for
their tusks. Over the period between 1973 and 1987 records indicate catastrophic decline in
elephant populations in East Africa. In Kenya and Uganda, about 85-89% of all the elephants
had been wiped out. In some areas there are hardly any adults left and troops of young wild
elephants are seen aimlessly roaming the Savannah. These young elephants did not obtain the
normal teaching and guidance from older animals with largest tusks. Usually the mothers were
killed, leaving young elephants behind. Most of the killings are illegal since poaching for ivory by
poachers means using guerilla tactics and sophisticated automatic rifles.

Solution: The most favorable option to conserve the elephants has to been to reduce the value of
ivory to the minimum. CITES the short form for Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora has been responsible for setting quatas for the
ivory trade. In October 1989, CITES agreed on a total ban on ivory that had to be reviewed after
two years. However, some African nations did not agree to the ban as they argued that their
elephant populations were stable or increase, and therefore wished to continue selling their ivory.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
decleared the elephants an endangered species to protect its numbers. The organization keeps
records and publishes detailed lists of species at risk of becoming extinct. They recognize four
categories of risk:
a. Rare species have small populations, usually within restricted geographical limits or
localized habitats, or widely scattered individually, they are at risk of becoming rare but
not becoming extinct.
b. Vulnerable species are those that are rare and under threat or actually decreasing in
number, or species that has been seriously depleted in the past and have not yet
recovered.
c. Endangered species have very low population numbers and are in considerable danger
of becoming extinct.
d. Extinct species are those that have already disappeared from the face of the earth.
They cannot be found in areas they once inhabited or in other likely habitats.
The IUCN produces what are called Red Data Books on species at risk including vascular plants,
mammals, birds, fish, amphibians and reptiles. The Red Data Books for the vertebrates list all
known species in these four categories. This is impossible for plants, as it estimated that 20000 to
25000 species can be classified as rare or more seriously at risk, that is about 10% of the total
plant species.

i). Genetic Diversity in Rare Species

A species that has declined to a low level in numbers is to be considered endangered and is likely to
encounter one of the following genetic problem
 Loss of some alleles from the species resulting in the loss of genetic diversity with consequent
inability to respond rapidly to selection. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene found at the same
locus.
 Reduction of population breeding ability due to increased relatedness through the action of
incompatibility mechanisms in plants or behavioral difficulties in animals.
 Expression of harmful alleles and increased homozygosity, increases mortality of young inbreeding
depression leading to reduced offspring fitness. Homozygosity is the presence of a gene that carries
two identical alleles in a diploid individual.
These consequences may not be disastrous in the short term, but it is a process that takes many
thousands of generations. This makes it very important during species conservation to preserve as much
genetic diversity as possible because once it is lost, the ability of the species to evolve with future
environmental change is reduced. To maintain the population variation in rare species it has been
suggested that a population of several hundred individuals is required.

Parks and controlled breeding programmes are a last but important report in the conservation of a
species. In recent year animal parks have developed international cooperation for breeding programmes.
Animals are shipped around the world to contribute their genes to new populations, which help to
maintain genetic diversity in the species by preventing excessive inbreeding. Parks that have particularly
good breeding records with certain rare species are becoming the centers for breeding operations with
the remaining captive animals.

ii). Re-introductions
The ultimate aim in any conservation breeding programme is to re-introduce the endangered species
back into the wilderness. Re-introductions can be made into an existing wild population to boost numbers
or into an area where the species lived in the past but has gone locally extinct. In the most extreme case
captive populations can be released into the wilderness where the species had become extinct.
Although there have been several successful re-introductions of captively bred species into the
wilderness, there have been many failures. Often the ecology of these species is poorly known. Without
knowledge of their true habitat and the original reasons for the decline, it is often difficult to expect
successful re-introduction.

Activity 4.2.4- Biodiversity loss: its causes and effects

Title What is biodiversity loss?
Purpose The purpose of this activity is to explain the meaning of
biodiversity loss, causes and effects on humans.
Brief summary of overall task Watch Video and Video 1 and read this Article
You should be able define biodiversity and explain the meaning
of biodiversity loss and identify its causes and effects on
humans.
Spark
 Deforestation. How many species could have been lost?
Individual task a) What is biodiversity?
b) Briefly describe the three main types of biodiversity.
c) What is mutation?
d) What is biodiversity loss?
e) List 4 causes of biodiversity loss.
f) Briefly describe 4 effects of biodiversity loss on humans

b. Conservation of Ecosystems
The destruction of existing natural ecosystems is the most important factor in the threat to
biodiversity. The range of human activities that lead to endangered species listed in IUCN Red
Data Book include;
 Collecting by gardeners/tourists/botanist
 Browsing and overgrazing
 Population critically low for breeding
 Clearance for agriculture
 Industrial and urban growth
 Logging in forest
 Coastal development
 Roads
 Disturbance by cars or trampling
 Fires
 Effects of introduced plants
 Dams and flooding
  Changes in farming practices
 Mining and quarrying
 Drainage
 Forestry
 Pollution
If a habitat is disappearing and therefore with it the whole communities of species, then the
best form of conservation is to conserve the habitat in some way. This procedure has been
followed in many countries with the setting up of national parks, game reserves and other
conservation areas for preservation and conservation of the rare fauna and flora.

c. Conservation of the Biosphere

A part from individual threats to species and ecosystems, the whole world is under threat from
more extensive changes that transcend national boundaries. Many of these global threat are the
result of human activities. For example, the ozone layer has seasonal “hole‟ over the poles and
is in serious danger of breaking down further due to the activity of greenhouse gases produced
and released from aerosols and refrigeration unit as well as industrial processes.

Viable Conservation
In order to understand how conservation works, one needs to understand the principles of
ecology, and see how they can be applied to the conservation of species, ecosystems and
biosphere. For an individual to have an impact on a global scale it is harder. However, there are
several choices, which if taken by many individuals will benefit our planet Earth.

4.3 Assessment Questions

1. The variability of life forms within a given ecosystem is called?
(a) Biology (b) environmental specie (c) biodiversity (d) biome species
2. Potential threats to biodiversity as a result of?
(a) Increased burning of wood and biomass for fuel (b) Increasing number of
livestock being raised (c) Increased combustion of fossil fuels (d) All the
above.
3. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the ___ level
(a) Genetic (b) species (c) ecosystem (d) all of the above
4. Diversity of all living things depends on
(a) Geography (b) presence of other species
(c) water (d) none of the above
5. Why are invasive species a threat to biodiversity?
(a) They can outcompete native organisms or their resources (b) they can
cause harm to the environment (c) they can be harmful to humans (d)
all statements are true
6. Human threats to biodiversity include
(a) Habitat destruction (b) Air Pollution
(c) Population growth (d) All of the above
7. Biodiversity is directly involved in?
(a) Water purification (b) recycling nutrients
(c) providing soil nutrients (d) all of the above

4.4 E-References
1. Chapman, J.L. and M.J. Reiss (1995): Ecology: Principles and Applications, New York:
Cambridge University press.
2. Cox C.B. and P.D. Moore (1985): Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach (4
Ed), Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Press.
3. Soule, M.E.Ed (1986): Conservation Biology: the Science of Scarcity and Diversity,
Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc. Pub.
4. What is biodiversity? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aqtdaIkxnQo
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b6Ua_zWDH6U
6. Human impacts on biodiversity. Ecology and environment.
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wXJiHr8jWBs
8. Human activities that threaten biodiversity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RC3Hsk90t8
9. Biodiversity loss-a documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKld7o6CISg
10. Loss of biodiversity https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLGlXGyrc4Y
11. Benefits of biodiversity https://www.science.org.au/curious/video/why-biodiversity-
important
12. Benefits of biodiversity https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C15NXPb67QE&frags=wn