UNIT 3

IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4 standard is specifically designed for low-rate wireless personal area network (LR-
WPAN). Its characteristics is low data rate. The nodes can communicate at low data rate. IEEE
802.15.4 is used for low power wireless connectivity solutions like ZigBee, 6LoWPAN and many more.
It is operated at a low data rate with good performance of battery life. It is operated with lower
distance communication {<100m}.

1. Physical Layer (PHY Layer)

The Physical Layer is responsible for sending and receiving data over the air. It defines the hardware
aspects of communication and ensures that the signals are correctly transmitted and received.

Key Functions:

1. Modulation and Demodulation:

o Converts data into signals suitable for wireless transmission.

o Uses Offset Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (O-QPSK) modulation in the 2.4 GHz
band for reliable and efficient data transmission.

2. Frequency Bands:

o Operates in three main frequency bands to cater to different regions and

applications:

 868 MHz (Europe): Supports a data rate of 20 kbps.

 915 MHz (North America): Offers a data rate of 40 kbps.

 2.4 GHz (Worldwide): The most common, providing a faster data rate of 250
kbps.

3. Spread Spectrum:

o Uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) to spread data across a wide
frequency range. This makes the communication more resilient to interference and
noise.

4. Channel Selection:

o Divides each frequency band into multiple channels:

 16 channels in the 2.4 GHz band.

 10 channels in the 915 MHz band.

 1 channel in the 868 MHz band.

5. Power Efficiency:
 o Optimized for low-power devices, enabling them to run on small batteries for long
periods.

2. MAC Layer (Medium Access Control Layer)

The MAC Layer is like a traffic controller. It ensures that devices take turns to communicate, avoiding
collisions and managing data flow in an orderly manner.

Key Functions:

1. Channel Access:

o Uses CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

 A device listens to the channel first. If the channel is free, it transmits data; if
not, it waits and retries later.

2. Frame Types:

o Defines different types of frames to organize communication:

 Data Frames: Carry the actual data.

 Beacon Frames: Sent by coordinators to synchronize the network.

 Acknowledgment Frames: Confirm successful data reception.

 MAC Command Frames: Handle network management (e.g., joining or

leaving the network).

3. Beacon-Enabled Mode:

o Coordinators send periodic beacon signals to help devices synchronize and manage
communication.

4. Non-Beacon Mode:

o Devices communicate only when needed, reducing energy consumption.

5. Association and Disassociation:

o Enables devices to join or leave a network through simple handshakes.

6. Retransmissions:

o If a device doesn’t receive an acknowledgment, it retransmits the data, ensuring

reliability.

3. Network Topologies

Topologies describe how devices are arranged and communicate in a network. IEEE 802.15.4
supports three types of topologies to suit different applications:

a. Star Topology:
  Structure:

o A single central device called the Coordinator manages communication.

o All devices (called End Devices) communicate directly with the coordinator.

 Advantages:

o Simple and easy to set up.

o Centralized control ensures efficient communication.

 Disadvantages:

o If the coordinator fails, the entire network stops working.

 Use Case: Home automation, where all sensors report to a central hub.

b. Peer-to-Peer (Mesh) Topology:

 Structure:

o Devices communicate directly with each other, forming a decentralized network.

 Advantages:

o Offers high flexibility and redundancy (data can take multiple paths).

o Scalable for large networks.

 Disadvantages:

o Requires more complex communication management.

 Use Case: Industrial monitoring, where sensors need to communicate with each other.

c. Cluster-Tree Topology:

 Structure:

o Devices form clusters. Each cluster has a Cluster Head, which connects to a central
coordinator.

 Advantages:

o Combines the simplicity of star topology with the flexibility of mesh topology.

 Disadvantages:

o Failure of a cluster head can disrupt part of the network.

 Use Case: Agricultural monitoring, where sensors in different fields report to their respective
cluster heads.

4. Security

Since IEEE 802.15.4 is often used in wireless networks with low-power devices, security is crucial to
protect against attacks and ensure data privacy.
Key Security Features:

1. AES-128 Encryption:

o Uses Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a 128-bit key to encrypt the data.

o Ensures that only authorized devices can read the transmitted data.

2. Access Control:

o Maintains a list of trusted devices and restricts communication to those devices only.

3. Message Integrity:

o Uses Message Integrity Codes (MIC) to ensure data hasn’t been altered during
transmission.

4. Replay Protection:

o Prevents attackers from re-sending old data packets by using unique frame counters
for each transmission.

5. Key Management:

o Encryption keys can be pre-installed, distributed by the coordinator, or derived

during communication.

IEEE 802.15.4g
The IEEE 802.15.4g standard is a specialized amendment to IEEE 802.15.4, tailored for Smart
Utility Networks (SUNs), such as smart meters, energy management systems, and other
industrial or utility applications. It enhances IEEE 802.15.4 by optimizing it for outdoor, large-
scale, low-power, and long-range communication.

Key Features of IEEE 802.15.4g

1. Support for Large-Scale Networks:
o Designed to connect thousands of devices, such as utility meters, over large areas
like cities or industrial sites.
2. Optimized for Low-Power and Long-Range Communication:
o Extends range and reduces power consumption, critical for devices that need to
operate for years on a single battery.
3. Global Operation:
o Supports multiple frequency bands to meet global regulatory requirements.

Physical Layer in IEEE 802.15.4g

The PHY Layer in 802.15.4g is extended to support more flexibility and robustness for outdoor
environments.
Features:
1. Frequency Bands:
o Operates in sub-GHz bands and 2.4 GHz to support long-range communication:
  470-510 MHz (China)
 863-870 MHz (Europe)
 902-928 MHz (North America)
 2.4 GHz (Worldwide)
2. Data Rates:
o Supports multiple data rates ranging from 40 kbps to 1 Mbps, depending on the
modulation and channel width.
3. Multiple Modulation Techniques:
o Allows use of different modulation schemes for flexibility and efficiency:
 O-QPSK (Offset Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying): For higher data rates.
 FSK (Frequency Shift Keying): Provides robustness for noisy environments.
 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing): Ensures high reliability
in challenging conditions.
4. Channel Width:
o Supports various channel widths like 200 kHz, 400 kHz, and 1.2 MHz, depending on
the region and application.
5. Interference Mitigation:
o Uses techniques like frequency hopping and spread spectrum to minimize
interference in crowded environments.

MAC Layer in IEEE 802.15.4g

The MAC Layer retains the core features of IEEE 802.15.4 while introducing enhancements to
support larger networks and better reliability.
Key Functions:
1. Channel Hopping:
o Implements frequency hopping to reduce interference and improve reliability in
noisy environments.
2. Scalable Network Size:
o Efficiently manages thousands of nodes in utility networks, ensuring seamless
communication.
3. Energy Efficiency:
o Optimized for low-power operation to extend battery life.
4. Data Prioritization:
o Supports Quality of Service (QoS) for critical data, ensuring timely delivery of
important messages.

Topologies in IEEE 802.15.4g

Like IEEE 802.15.4, the 802.15.4g standard supports the same basic topologies but scales them
for larger networks:
1. Star Topology:
o Ideal for localized systems where devices communicate directly with a central
coordinator.
o Example: Smart meters in a neighborhood connecting to a data concentrator.
2. Peer-to-Peer (Mesh) Topology:
o Enables direct communication between devices, allowing multi-hop transmission for
extended range.
 o Example: Industrial systems where sensors communicate over long distances via
intermediate nodes.
3. Cluster-Tree Topology:
o Combines centralized control with hierarchical organization for efficient data
collection.
o Example: Utility grids where clusters of meters report to a central system.

Security in IEEE 802.15.4g

The 802.15.4g standard incorporates robust security features, building on IEEE 802.15.4, but
tailored for critical infrastructure:
Security Features:
1. AES-128 Encryption:
o Ensures data confidentiality for sensitive utility information.
2. Key Management:
o Supports secure key distribution and management for large-scale deployments.
3. Data Integrity and Authentication:
o Protects data from tampering and ensures it is sent by trusted devices.
4. Replay Protection:
o Prevents attackers from resending captured packets.

IEEE 802.15.4e

IEEE 802.15.4e is an amendment to the IEEE 802.15.4 standard that enhances its Medium Access
Control (MAC) layer. It addresses limitations in the original standard, focusing on applications
requiring reliability, low latency, energy efficiency, and scalability, such as industrial automation,
smart grids, and IoT systems.

1. Physical Layer (PHY)

The Physical Layer (PHY) in IEEE 802.15.4e remains largely the same as in IEEE 802.15.4. It handles
how data is transmitted over the air.

Key Features:

1. Frequency Bands:

o Operates in unlicensed ISM bands:

 2.4 GHz (global)

 Sub-GHz bands like 868 MHz (Europe) and 915 MHz (North America).

2. Data Rates:

o Up to 250 kbps in the 2.4 GHz band.

 o Lower rates (e.g., 20 kbps, 40 kbps) in sub-GHz bands for better range and reliability.

3. Modulation:

o DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) with O-QPSK (Offset Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying) for resilience against interference.

4. Range:

o Typically 10–100 meters, depending on frequency and environment.

5. Channel Bandwidth:

o Narrow channels of 2 MHz for better coexistence with other technologies.

6. Energy Efficiency:

o Low-power operation, suitable for battery-powered devices.

2. MAC Layer (Medium Access Control)

The MAC layer in IEEE 802.15.4e introduces significant enhancements to support low-power,
reliable, and deterministic communication.

Key Features:

1. Time-Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH):

o Divides time into slots, where each slot is assigned to specific devices or tasks.

o Channel Hopping: Devices change frequencies between slots to avoid interference

and improve reliability.

2. Deterministic Scheduling:

o Ensures that critical messages are transmitted on time, making it ideal for
applications like industrial control.

3. Low Latency:

o Minimizes delays by using scheduled access instead of random contention-based

access.

4. Energy Efficiency:

o Devices can enter sleep mode between scheduled slots, extending battery life.

5. Priority Traffic Handling:

o Supports Quality of Service (QoS) to prioritize time-critical data over non-critical

data.

6. Enhanced Beaconing:

o Beacons provide synchronization and scheduling information, enabling devices to

efficiently join and operate in the network.
 7. Channel Access Mechanisms:

o CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): For non-
deterministic traffic.

o TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): For time-critical applications, enabled by

TSCH.

8. Scalability:

o Can handle networks with thousands of devices, organized into structured

topologies.

3. Network Topology

IEEE 802.15.4e supports a variety of topologies to suit different application requirements.

Supported Topologies:

1. Star Topology:

o A central coordinator communicates directly with multiple end devices.

o Example: A smart home hub controlling multiple sensors.

2. Cluster Tree Topology:

o Coordinators form a hierarchical structure, with each acting as a relay for its child
nodes.

o Example: Smart grids or agricultural monitoring.

3. Mesh Topology:

o Devices communicate with each other, relaying data to extend the network's range
and resilience.

o Example: Industrial automation or urban IoT networks.

4. Multi-hop Communication:

o Data is forwarded across intermediate nodes to reach its destination, enhancing

coverage in large areas.

4. Security

Security is a critical component in IEEE 802.15.4e, ensuring that communication is protected against
unauthorized access and tampering.

Key Security Features:

1. Encryption:

o Protects data using AES-128 encryption.

 2. Authentication:

o Verifies the identity of devices before allowing them to join the network.

3. Message Integrity:

o Prevents tampering by including Message Integrity Codes (MICs) in each packet.

4. Replay Protection:

o Prevents attackers from reusing old messages by using unique sequence numbers or
timestamps.

5. Secure Key Management:

o Ensures secure distribution and updating of cryptographic keys.

6. TSCH Security:

o Combines time-synchronized communication with encryption, making it difficult for

attackers to intercept and decode messages.

7. Protection Against Denial-of-Service (DoS):

o Minimizes the impact of malicious traffic by controlling device access and managing
network resources effectively.

IEEE 1901.2a
The IEEE 1901.2a standard is a refinement of IEEE 1901.2, focusing on low-frequency power line
communications (PLC) in the frequency range of 10 kHz to 500 kHz. It is primarily designed for
applications in smart grids, home automation, and industrial control, where reliable and secure data
communication over existing power line infrastructure is critical.

1. Physical Layer (PHY)

The Physical Layer (PHY) in IEEE 1901.2a ensures that data is transmitted and received effectively
over power lines, which are noisy and subject to interference.

Key Features:

1. Frequency Bands:

o Operates in the low-frequency spectrum (10 kHz to 500 kHz) for improved range
and penetration.

o Bands are selected to comply with global regulations, such as CENELEC (Europe), FCC
(USA), and ARIB (Japan).

2. Modulation Techniques:

o Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM):

  Splits the signal into multiple narrowband carriers to resist interference.

o Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK):

 Used for robust data transmission in noisy environments.

3. Data Rates:

o Offers data rates ranging from up to 500 kbps, suitable for low-bandwidth
applications like smart metering.

4. Channel Coding:

o Implements Forward Error Correction (FEC) to detect and correct errors caused by
noise and interference.

5. Power Spectral Density (PSD):

o Limits signal power to minimize interference with other communication systems

operating on the power line.

6. Transmission Range:

o Optimized for long-range communication, typically covering several kilometers in

low-voltage or medium-voltage power lines.

2. MAC Layer (Medium Access Control)

The MAC Layer ensures orderly and efficient communication over the shared medium (power lines),
where multiple devices may need to communicate simultaneously.

Key Features:

1. Channel Access Mechanisms:

o CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

 Devices sense the channel before transmitting to avoid collisions.

o TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):

 Assigns specific time slots to devices for deterministic communication.

2. Prioritization of Traffic:

o Supports Quality of Service (QoS) to prioritize critical data (e.g., grid control signals)
over less critical traffic (e.g., usage reporting).

3. Frame Types:

o Data Frames: Carry application-layer data.

o Management Frames: Handle network setup and configuration.

o Acknowledgment Frames: Confirm successful data delivery.

4. Reliability:
 o Uses retransmission mechanisms and acknowledgments to ensure reliable
communication.

5. Energy Efficiency:

o Optimized for low-power operation, critical for battery-powered or resource-

constrained devices.

3. Network Topology

IEEE 1901.2a supports various topologies to meet the needs of different applications, ranging from
small home networks to large utility grids.

Supported Topologies:

1. Point-to-Point:

o Structure:

 A direct connection between two devices over the power line.

o Use Case:

 Simple device-to-device communication (e.g., connecting a smart meter to a

data concentrator).

2. Point-to-Multipoint (Star Topology):

o Structure:

 A central device (e.g., data concentrator) communicates with multiple end

devices (e.g., smart meters).

o Use Case:

 Smart grid applications where a central hub collects data from meters in a
neighborhood.

3. Multihop (Mesh Topology):

o Structure:

 Devices relay messages to extend the network's range and improve

coverage.

o Use Case:

 Industrial control systems or rural grid networks where direct

communication may not be feasible due to distance.

4. Tree Topology:

o Structure:

 A hierarchical arrangement of devices with a root node and multiple

branches.
 o Use Case:

 Large-scale utility networks with structured communication flows.

4. Security

Given its use in critical infrastructure, security is a major focus of IEEE 1901.2a. It incorporates robust
mechanisms to protect data integrity, confidentiality, and network availability.

Key Security Features:

1. Encryption:

o Uses AES-128 or higher to ensure data confidentiality.

2. Authentication:

o Verifies the identity of devices to prevent unauthorized access.

3. Message Integrity:

o Uses cryptographic Message Authentication Codes (MACs) to detect and prevent

tampering.

4. Replay Protection:

o Protects against replay attacks by using unique sequence numbers or timestamps for
each message.

5. Key Management:

o Ensures secure distribution and management of encryption keys, which can be pre-
shared, distributed dynamically, or derived during communication.

6. Denial of Service (DoS) Mitigation:

o Includes measures to detect and respond to excessive or malicious traffic that could
disrupt communication.

IEEE 802.11ah
IEEE 802.11ah, also known as Wi-Fi HaLow, is a wireless communication standard designed to
operate in the sub-1 GHz spectrum. It is tailored for low-power, long-range applications like IoT,
smart agriculture, industrial automation, and smart cities. By leveraging sub-GHz frequencies, it
achieves greater range and better penetration through obstacles compared to traditional Wi-Fi
standards.

1. Physical Layer (PHY)

The Physical Layer (PHY) of IEEE 802.11ah is optimized for low-power and long-range
communication.
Key Features:

1. Operating Frequency:

o Sub-1 GHz bands (e.g., 433 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz), depending on regional
regulations.

2. Modulation and Coding:

o Supports Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for efficient

spectrum utilization.

o Modulation schemes include:

 BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying)

 QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)

 16-QAM and 64-QAM for higher data rates.

3. Data Rates:

o Range from 150 kbps to 347 Mbps, scalable to match application needs.

4. Channel Bandwidth:

o Narrower channels (e.g., 1 MHz, 2 MHz) for longer range and lower power
consumption.

o Supports wider bandwidths (up to 16 MHz) for higher throughput.

5. Transmission Range:

o Up to 1 km in open environments due to lower frequency operation and better

propagation characteristics.

6. Energy Efficiency:

o Incorporates power-saving modes for battery-operated devices, extending their

operational lifespan.

2. MAC Layer (Medium Access Control)

The MAC Layer in IEEE 802.11ah is designed for efficient, scalable communication among thousands
of IoT devices.

Key Features:

1. Hierarchical Station Grouping:

o Devices (stations) are organized into groups, reducing contention in high-density

deployments.

o Each group communicates during a specific time period, managed by the Access
Point (AP).

2. Restricted Access Window (RAW):

 o Divides the network into time slots for specific devices or groups.

o Reduces collisions and improves energy efficiency by allowing devices to sleep when
not scheduled to transmit.

3. Traffic Prioritization:

o Supports Quality of Service (QoS) to prioritize critical traffic (e.g., alarms) over non-
critical data.

4. Efficient Beaconing:

o Optimized beacons minimize overhead and extend battery life for devices.

5. Support for Large Networks:

o Can manage up to 8191 devices per Access Point, making it ideal for IoT applications
with many endpoints.

3. Network Topology

IEEE 802.11ah supports flexible topologies to cater to various use cases.

Supported Topologies:

1. Star Topology:

o A central Access Point (AP) communicates directly with multiple devices (stations).

o Example: Smart home networks where the AP connects to sensors and actuators.

2. Hierarchical Star:

o Groups of devices connect to multiple APs, creating a scalable and redundant

network.

o Example: Agricultural applications where sensors in different fields connect to

separate APs.

3. Mesh Networks:

o Extends coverage by allowing devices to relay data to other nodes.

o Example: Industrial facilities with dispersed sensors.

4. Security

IEEE 802.11ah incorporates robust security mechanisms to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and
authenticity of data.

Key Security Features:

1. Authentication:

o Uses 802.11i-based security framework, including protocols like:

  WPA3 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 3)

 SAE (Simultaneous Authentication of Equals) for robust device

authentication.

2. Encryption:

o Protects data using AES-128 encryption.

3. Data Integrity:

o Ensures that transmitted data is not tampered with during transit.

4. Replay Protection:

o Prevents attackers from reusing captured packets.

5. Key Management:

o Efficient key exchange and renewal mechanisms ensure secure communication.

6. Energy-Aware Security:

o Lightweight encryption and authentication protocols minimize power consumption,

making them suitable for battery-powered IoT devices.

LoRaWAN

LoRaWAN Network Layer and Its IP Versions

1. LoRaWAN Network Layer:

The LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) protocol operates on a star topology and is
designed to enable long-range communication with low power consumption, primarily for
IoT applications. The network layer of LoRaWAN handles the routing, addressing, and
communication between devices and the network server. It includes several key
components:

o End Devices (Nodes): These are the IoT devices that communicate with the network
using LoRa (Long Range) radio modulation. They send and receive data to/from
gateways, which relay the data to a network server. End devices typically operate in
either Class A (low power, two-way communication) or Class C (constant listening
mode) for energy efficiency.

o Gateways: These are intermediary devices that receive data from end devices over
LoRa radio and forward it to the network server via IP (Internet Protocol)
connectivity. Gateways do not process data but serve as bridges for LoRaWAN
devices to connect to the network server.

o Network Server: The network server manages communication, security, and routing
of messages between the end devices and the application servers. It ensures
 message integrity, handles security features like encryption, and filters duplicates.
The network server also manages the radio frequency (RF) usage to prevent
interference.

o Application Server: This is where application-specific data is processed. The

application server receives data from the network server and interprets it based on
the IoT application.

Key Features of the LoRaWAN Network Layer:

o Adaptive Data Rate (ADR): LoRaWAN adjusts data transmission rates based on the
signal quality to optimize energy consumption and improve network capacity.

o Security: LoRaWAN employs AES encryption to secure data during transmission. Each
device has a unique DevEUI (Device Unique Identifier), and communication is
encrypted with a session key.

o Star Topology: End devices communicate directly with gateways, which then relay
messages to the network server.

2. IP Versions in LoRaWAN:

LoRaWAN itself does not directly support traditional IP networking like IPv4 or IPv6. However, there
are ways to integrate LoRaWAN into IP-based systems, either via the use of gateways or by
implementing adaptations to support IP communication. Here's how:

o IPv6 over LoRaWAN (6LoWPAN):

6LoWPAN is a compression mechanism designed to enable the use of IPv6 over low-
power and low-bandwidth networks like LoRaWAN. This allows devices on LoRaWAN
networks to be addressed using standard IPv6 addresses. The 6LoWPAN adaptation
layer compresses IPv6 headers to fit within the limited payload size of LoRaWAN
packets, enabling efficient communication with IPv6-based systems.

o LoRaWAN to IP Gateway:
Since LoRaWAN operates at the network and MAC layers, gateways are often used to
bridge LoRaWAN communication to traditional IP networks (IPv4/IPv6). These
gateways act as translators, forwarding LoRaWAN data to IP-based servers or
application platforms. This allows LoRaWAN-based devices to interact with systems
that operate over the internet, enabling the integration of IoT devices with cloud
services and IP-based networks.

Key Benefits of LoRaWAN with IP Integration:

o Long Range and Low Power: LoRaWAN can provide long-range communication with
minimal energy consumption, which is ideal for IoT applications like remote sensing
and tracking.

o Scalability: Using IP integration, LoRaWAN networks can be scaled to handle

thousands or even millions of devices with minimal complexity, as IP protocols are
well-established and widely supported.
 o Connectivity to Internet: LoRaWAN gateways that translate data into IP protocols
allow IoT devices to connect to cloud platforms, enabling centralized monitoring and
data analysis.

Constrained Nodes and Constrained Networks

Constrained Nodes: These are devices with limited computational power, memory, and energy
resources, commonly used in IoT environments, such as sensors, actuators, and microcontrollers like
ESP32 or ESP8266. They often operate in harsh environments with strict power requirements, relying
on batteries or energy harvesting, making energy efficiency a critical design consideration.

Constrained Networks: These networks have limited bandwidth, high latency, or intermittent
connectivity, typically used for communication between constrained nodes. Examples include LPWAN
(e.g., LoRaWAN) and Zigbee networks. They often experience interference or signal degradation due
to environmental factors or physical obstructions, which further limit reliability and data throughput.

Routing over Low Power and Lossy Networks

RPL stands for Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks for heterogeneous traffic
networks. It is a routing protocol for Wireless Networks. This protocol is based on the same standard
as by Zigbee and 6 Lowpan is IEEE 802.15.4 It holds both many-to-one and one-to-one
communication.

It is a Distance Vector Routing Protocol that creates a tree-like routing topology called
the Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG), rooted towards one or more nodes called
the root node or sink node.

The Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) are created based on user-specified specific Objective Function
(OF). The OF defines the method to find the best-optimized route among the number of sensor
devices.

In an RPL Network, each node acts as a router and becomes part of a mesh network. Routing is
performed at the IP Layer. Each node examines every received IPv6 packet and determines the next-
hop destination based on the information contained in the IPv6 header. No information from the
MAC layer header is needed to perform the next determination.

Modes of RPL:

This protocol defines two modes:

1. Storing mode

All nodes contain the entire routing table of the RPL domain. Every node knows how to reach every
other node directly.

2. Non-Storing mode

Only the border router(s) of the RPL domain contain(s) the full routing table. All other nodes in the
domain maintain their list of parents only and use this as a list of default routes towards the border
router. The abbreviated routing table saves memory space and CPU. When communicating in non-
storing mode, a node always forwards its packet to the border router, which knows how to ultimately
reach the final destination.

RPL is based on the concept of a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). A DAG is Directed Graph where no
cycle exists. This means that from any vertex or point in the graph, we cannot follow an edge or a line
back to this same point. All of the edges are arranged in a path oriented toward and terminating at
one or more root nodes.

A basic RPL process involves building a Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG). A
DODAG is a DAG rooted in one destination. In RPL this destination occurs at a border router known
as the DODAG root. In a DODAG, three parents maximum are maintained by each node that
provides a path to the root. Typically one of these parents is the preferred parent, which means it is
the preferred next hop for upward roots towards the root.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It is a system used to monitor and
control industrial processes and infrastructure in real time. SCADA systems are crucial for managing
operations in industries like manufacturing, power generation, water treatment, and transportation.

SCADA collects data from sensors and devices in the field, processes the data, and allows operators
to monitor and control the processes remotely. The system ensures smooth operations, improves
efficiency, and helps detect and resolve problems quickly.

How Does SCADA Work?

SCADA systems have four main components:

1. Field Devices:

o Sensors and actuators are installed on machines, pipelines, or other equipment.

o These devices collect data (e.g., temperature, pressure, or flow rates) and execute
commands (e.g., open/close a valve).

2. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) or Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs):

o RTUs and PLCs act as intermediaries between field devices and the central system.

o They collect raw data from the sensors, process it, and send it to the SCADA system.

o They also receive commands from the SCADA system and relay them to the field
devices.

3. Communication Infrastructure:

o Communication networks (wired or wireless) transmit data between RTUs/PLCs and

the central system.

o Protocols like Modbus, DNP3, or Ethernet/IP are commonly used.

 4. Human-Machine Interface (HMI):

o The HMI is the interface operators use to monitor and control the system.

o It displays data visually through charts, graphs, and alarms.

o Operators can issue commands, like turning equipment on/off or adjusting settings.

Types of SCADA Systems

1. Monolithic SCADA (First Generation):

o Centralized systems that operated on mainframes.

o Communication was limited to the local site.

o Mostly standalone and not connected to external networks.

2. Distributed SCADA (Second Generation):

o Introduced multiple distributed nodes for better performance.

o Used Local Area Networks (LANs) for communication.

o Each node could process some data independently.

3. Networked SCADA (Third Generation):

o Systems connected via Wide Area Networks (WANs) or the internet.

o Allowed for remote monitoring and control over large distances.

o Improved interoperability and scalability.

4. Web-based/Cloud-based SCADA (Fourth Generation):

o Uses cloud computing and IoT for better flexibility and cost-efficiency.

o Accessible from any device with internet access.

o Provides advanced data analytics and real-time monitoring on a global scale.

Uses of SCADA

SCADA systems are widely used in various industries:

1. Energy Sector:

2. Water and Wastewater Management:

3. Manufacturing:

4. Oil and Gas:

5. Transportation:

6. Building Automation:
Why is SCADA Important?

 Real-Time Monitoring: Operators can make quick decisions to prevent breakdowns or

hazards.

 Automation: Reduces manual labor and improves efficiency.

 Data Analytics: Provides insights into system performance and areas for improvement.

 Safety: Ensures safer operation by quickly identifying and responding to issues.

 Scalability: Can be adapted to manage large or small systems as needed.

Categories of Application Protocols

1. Messaging and Lightweight Communication Protocols

These protocols are designed to facilitate lightweight communication between IoE devices and
applications, especially for constrained environments.

Examples:

1. MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport):

2. CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol):

3. AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol):

2. Real-Time Communication Protocols

These protocols ensure real-time communication between devices and applications, often used for
time-sensitive applications.

Examples:

1. WebSocket:

2. XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol):

3. RTSP (Real-Time Streaming Protocol):

3. File and Data Transfer Protocols

These protocols manage the transfer of structured or unstructured data between IoE devices and
systems.

Examples:

1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure):

 3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

4. Device Discovery and Configuration Protocols

These protocols enable devices in an IoE ecosystem to discover each other and configure
connections automatically.

Examples:

1. mDNS (Multicast Domain Name System):

2. UPnP (Universal Plug and Play):

3. Zeroconf (Zero Configuration Networking):

5. Media Streaming Protocols

These protocols handle the delivery and control of audio, video, and multimedia content in IoE
applications.

Examples:

1. RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol):

2. RTCP (Real-Time Transport Control Protocol):

3. DLNA (Digital Living Network Alliance):

6. Device Management and Control Protocols

These protocols enable configuration, monitoring, and control of IoE devices.

Examples:

1. LWM2M (Lightweight Machine-to-Machine):

2. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):

3. TR-069 (Technical Report 069):

7. Security Protocols

Security-focused application layer protocols ensure data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity in
IoE applications.

Examples:

1. TLS (Transport Layer Security):

2. DTLS (Datagram TLS):

3. OAuth

CoAP
The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a special web transfer protocol that operates with
constrained nodes and networks. These networks are commonly used for applications such as the
Internet of Things (IoT), where devices may have limited processor, memory, and power resources.
CoAP is intended to be simple, low-overhead, and efficient, making it ideal for machine-to-machine
communication.

Working of CoAP:

 Client-Server Model: CoAP model is essentially a client/server model enabling the client to
request for service from server as needed and the server responds to client's request.

 Resource-Oriented: CoAP treats various objects in the network as resources, each uniquely
identified by a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier). Clients can request information about
these resources, and servers provide responses2.

 Methods: CoAP supports several methods similar to HTTP:

o GET

o POST

o DELETE

o PUT

 Asynchronous Messaging: CoAP messages are asynchronous because it uses the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP). Unlike TCP-based protocols, CoAP does not require
acknowledgments for every message, which helps conserve energy in resource-constrained
devices.

 Energy Efficiency: CoAP is designed to minimize energy consumption while simplifying

communication between clients and devices. It achieves this by managing resources,
providing device descriptions, and supporting mechanisms to determine if a device is
powered on or off.

Methods in CoAP

 GET - The get method is used to retrieve resource information identified by the request URI.
In response to GET method success a 200(OK) response is sent.

 POST - The post method creates a new subordinate resource under the parent URI requested
by it to the server. On successful resource creation on the server, a 201 (Created) response is
sent while on failure a 200 (OK) response code is sent.

 DELETE - The delete method deletes the resource identified by the requested URI and a 200
(OK) response code is sent on successful operation.

 PUT - The PUT method updates or creates the resource identified by the request URI with
the enclosed message body. The message body is considered as modified version of a
resource if it already exists at the specified URI otherwise a new resource with that URI is
created. A 200 (OK) response is received in former case whereas a 201 (Created) response is
received in later case. If the resource is neither created nor modified then an error response
code is sent.
The most fundamental difference between CoAP and HTTP is that CoAP defines a new method which
is not present in HTTP. This method is called Observe method. The observe method is very similar to
the GET method in addition with an observe option. This alerts the server, to send every update
about the resource to the client. Therefore, upon any change in the resource, the server sends a
response to the client. These responses could either be directly sent individually or they can
be piggy-backed.

Message Format of CoAP

CoAP messages are encoded in binary-format or 0/1 format. Like other message formats, CoAP
message has a header and a payload section along with an optional section. The size of CoAP header
is 4 bytes or 32 bits. This size is fixed for every CoAP message. Whereas the other part of message is
the optional part which includes payload and tokens of variable size ranging from 0-8 bytes. The
message format of CoAP contains the following fields:

 Version - The size of version field is 2 bits. It represents the version of the CoAP protocol.

 Type Code - The size of type field is 2 bits. There are four types of messages namely
confirmable, non-confirmable, acknowledgement and reset represented by the bit patterns
00, 01, 10, 11 respectively.

 Option Count - The size of option count field is 4 bits. These 4 bits, means there could be a
total of 16 possible options in header.

 Code - The size of code field is 8 bits. This indicates whether message is empty, request
message or response message.

 Message ID - The size of message ID field is 16 bits. It is used to detect the message
duplication and types of messages.

 Tokens [Optio
nal] - The size of
tokens field is
variable which
ranges from
0-8 bytes. It's
used to match a
response with
request.

 Options [Opti
onal] - The options
field in CoAP
message has a variable size. It defines the type of payload message.

 Payload [Optional] - Similar to options field, the payload field has a variable size. The payload
of requests or of responses is typically a representation of the requested resource or the
result of the requested action.
CoAP Features

 Lightweight and Simple

 RESTful Architecture

 UDP-Based

 Asynchronous Communication

 Low Header Overhead

 Multicast Communication

MQTT
MQTT is a simple, lightweight messaging protocol used to establish communication between
multiple devices. It is a TCP-based protocol relying on the publish-subscribe model. This
communication protocol is suitable for transmitting data between resource-constrained devices
having low bandwidth and low power requirements. Hence this messaging protocol is widely used
for communication in the IoT Framework.

Publish-Subscribe Model

This model involves multiple clients interacting with each other, without having any direct
connection established between them. All clients communicate with other clients only via a third
party known as a Broker.

MQTT Client and Broker

Clients publish messages on different topics to brokers. The broker is the central server that receives
these messages and filters them based on their topics. It then sends these messages to respective
clients that have subscribed to those different topics. The heart of any publish/subscribe protocol is
the MQTT broker. A broker can handle up to thousands of concurrently connected MQTT customers,
depending on how it is implemented. All communications must be received by the broker, who will
then sort them, ascertain who subscribed to each one, and deliver the messages to the clients who
have subscribed. All persistent customers’ sessions, including missed messages and subscriptions, are
likewise kept by the Broker.
Hence client that has subscribed to a specific topic receives all messages published on that topic.

Here the broker is central hub that receives messages, filters them, and distributes them to
appropriate clients, such that both message publishers, as well as subscribers, are clients.

Working of MQTT

MQTT’s publish/subscribe (pub/sub) communication style, which aims to maximise available

bandwidth, is an alternative to conventional client-server architecture that communicates directly
with an endpoint. In contrast, the client who transmits the message (the publisher) and the client or
clients who receive it (the subscribers) are not connected in the pub/sub paradigm. Third parties—
the brokers—manage the relationships between the publishers and subscribers because they don’t
communicate with one another directly.

Publishers and subscribers, which

denote whether a client is
publishing messages or has
subscribed to receive messages,
are examples of MQTT clients.
The same MQTT client can be
used to accomplish these
two features. A publish occurs
when a client or device want to
submit data to a server or broker.

The term “subscribe” refers

to the reversal of the procedure.
Several clients can connect to a broker under the pub/sub paradigm and subscribe to subjects that
interest them.

When a broker and a subscribing client lose contact, the broker will store messages in a buffer and
send them to the subscriber whenever the broker is back up and running. The broker has the right to
cut off communication with subscribers and send them a cached message containing publisher
instructions if the publishing client abruptly disconnects from the broker.
“Publishers send the messages, subscribers receive the messages they are interested in, and brokers
pass the messages from the publishers to the subscribers,” reads an IBM write-up describing the
pub/sub paradigm. MQTT clients, such as publishers and subscribers, can only speak with MQTT
brokers. Any device or programme that runs a MQTT library can be a MQTT client, ranging from
microcontrollers like the Arduino to entire application servers housed in the cloud.

Characteristics of MQTT

 Lightweight: Designed for low-resource environments like embedded systems and low-
power devices, with minimal bandwidth and processing overhead.

 Publish-Subscribe Model: Decouples producers (publishers) and consumers (subscribers),

allowing flexible, dynamic communication by routing messages via topics.

 Quality of Service (QoS): Offers three delivery reliability levels (0, 1, 2), suitable for varying
application requirements.

 Retained Messages: Brokers store the latest message for a topic, ensuring new subscribers
instantly receive the most recent update.

 Last Will and Testament (LWT): Allows a message to be broadcast if a client disconnects
unexpectedly, aiding failure detection.

 Security: Supports TLS encryption and authentication mechanisms like username/password

or client certificates to ensure confidentiality and integrity.

Advantages of MQTT

 Versatile Communication: Enables one-to-many, many-to-one, and many-to-many

communication, supporting bi-directional data flow.

 Efficient Data Transport: Lightweight protocol with minimal network usage and power
consumption, ideal for connected devices.

 Small Packet Size: Fixed header of 2 bytes and payload up to 256 MB ensures low overhead
and quick transmission.

 Effective Messaging: Prompt delivery, effective data dissemination, and suitable for remote
sensing and control applications.

 Secure Transmission: Uses port 8883 for encrypted communication via TLS.

Disadvantages of MQTT

 Slower than CoAP: MQTT has slower send cycles compared to Constrained Application
Protocol (CoAP).

 Resource Discovery: Relies on flexible topic subscription, while CoAP uses a more reliable
discovery system.
 No Native Encryption: Security depends on external mechanisms like TLS/SSL.

 Scalability Challenges: Building a globally scalable MQTT network can be complex.