Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

1 Sequences of Real Numbers

1.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with sequences of real numbers, such as
1 1 1 1
1, , , , , . . .
2 2 4 5
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . .
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . .

It describes in detail various properties that a sequence may possess, the most important
of which is convergence. Roughly speaking, a sequence is convergent, or tends to a limit, if
the numbers, or terms, in the sequence approach arbitrarily close to a unique real number,
which is called the limit of the sequence. For example, we shall see that the sequence
1 1 1 1
1, , , , , . . .
2 2 4 5
is convergent with limit 0. On the other hand, the terms of the sequence

0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . .

do not approach arbitrarily close to any unique real number, and so this sequence is not
convergent. Likewise, the sequence

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . .

is not convergent.
A sequence which is not convergent is called divergent. The sequence

0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . .

is a bounded divergent sequence. The sequence

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . .

is unbounded ; its terms become arbitrarily large and positive, and we say that it tends to
infinity.
Intuitively, it seems plausible that some sequences are convergent, whereas others are
not. The importance of convergence of sequences can be evident in many mathematical
procedures already developed. For instance, The Newton iterative procedure for solving
the equation f (x) = 0 heavily depends on the concept of convergence of sequences. For
example, to solve an equation f (x) = 0, using the Newton method, we proceed as follows:
We introduce a new function
f (x)
F (x) = x − ′
f (x)

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

We begin with a guess at a solution of f (x) = 0, say x1 and compute x2 = F (x1 ) in the hope
that x2 is closer to a solution than x1 was. The process is repeated so that

x3 = F (x2 ), x4 = F (x3 ), x5 = F (x4 ), . . .

and so on until the desired accuracy is reached.

The iterative process is given by
f (xn )
xn+1 = xn −
f ′ (xn )

If |xn − xn+1 | is less that the desired accuracy, let xn+1 serve as the final approximation of
the solution of f (x) = 0. For example, we can solve the equation f (x) = x2 − 2 = 0 using
the Newton method as follows. Make an initial guess x1 = 1. The iterative process is given
by
f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − ′
f (xn )
n xn
1 1.000000
2 1.500000
3 1.416667
4 1.414216
5 1.414214
6 1.414214
√
The true solution to f (x) = x2 − 2 = 0 is x = 2 ≈ 1.414214 to 6 d.p. We can see from the
iteration procedure that after only 4 iterations, the procedure gives a value differing from
the true value by 0.000002 i.e.
√
|xn − 2| < 0.000002 f or n ≥ 4

Expressed more formally, if we are given a positive ϵ( we call it epsilon to suggest that it
measures an error) no matter how small, can we find a √ stage in this procedure so that the
value computed and all subsequent values are closer to 2 within ϵ?. In symbols, is there
an integer N (which will depend on ϵ) that is large enough so that
√
|xn − 2| < ϵ ∀n ≥ N ?

If this is true√
then this sequence has a remarkable property. We shall say that the sequence
converges to 2 and write √
lim xn = 2
n→∞

This is the beginning of the theory of convergence that is central to analysis. These ideas
lead to an ideal world of infinite precision, where sequences are precise tools in discussing
real numbers. All of analysis, both pure and applied, rests on an understanding of limits.
What you learn in this chapter will offer a foundation for all the rest that you will have to
learn later.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

1.2 Sequences
Definition 1.1. A sequence is simply a list of real numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , . . .

There is a first element in the list, a second element, a third element, and so on continuing
in an order forever. Each of the numbers in the sequence is called a term. The symbol n is
called the index variable for the sequence. The real number an is called the nth −term of the
sequence. We use the notation (an )∞ n=1 or simply (an ) to denote this sequence.

1.3 Examples

∞
1. ( 21 , 23 , 34 , 54 , . . .) = n
n+1 n=1

2. (−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . .) = ((−1)n )∞

n=1

3. (2, 4, 8, 16.32, . . .) = (2n )∞

n=1

4. (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .) = (2n)∞

n=1

5. an+2 = an + an+1 , n > 2, a1 = 1, a2 = 1 (Fibonacci Sequence)

Remark
1. The order of the terms of a sequence is an important part of the definition of a sequence.
For example, the sequence (1, 5, 7, . . .) is not the same as the sequence (1, 7, 5, . . .).
2. It is not necessary for the terms of a sequence to be different. For example, (1, 2, 2, 2, . . .)
and (1, 1, 1, 1, . . .) are perfectly good sequences.

1.4 Explicit/recursion formula for nth term of a sequence

It is sometimes better to give a precise description of a typical term of a sequence. We do
this by stating an explicit formula or the recursion formula for the nth term.
For example the expression (2n − 1)∞
n=1 denotes the sequence

(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .)

and the nth term of this sequence is described by the explicit formula

an = 2n − 1

The explicit formula can be obtained from the listed sequence as follows:

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

a1 = 1
a2 = 1 + 2 = 1 + (2 × 1)
a3 = 1 + 2 + 2 = 1 + (2 × 2)
a4 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 + (2 × 3)
a5 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 + (2 × 4)
..
.
an = 1 + |2 + 2 + 2{z+ · · · + 2} = 1 + 2(n − 1) = 2n − 1
n−1 times

Find the explicit formula for the sequence

(an ) = ( 21 , 43 , 58 , 16
7 9
, 32 , . . .)
Here let an = pqnn where pn = 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . , qn = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . and then find explicit
formulas for pn , qn .

pn = 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . = (2n )∞

n=1
qn = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . = (2n − 1)∞n=1

pn 2n
This implies that an = qn
= 2n−1
and hence
∞
2n

(an ) =
2n − 1 n=1

1. Determine the nth term for the sequence whose first five terms are
− 21 , 28 , − 26 , 80 , − 242
6 24 120
,...
2. Find a sequence (an ) whose first four terms are
1 4 9 16
, , , ,...
1 3 7 15

Sequences can also be defined using recurrence relation i.e. one term (or more) of the
sequence is given explicitly and subsequent terms are defined in terms of the earlier terms
in the sequence. For example, the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . can be defined recursively as

a1 = 1, an = an−1 + 2 ∀n = 2, 3, . . .

Also the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . can be defined recursively as

a1 = 2, an = 2an−1 ∀n ≥ 2

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

1.5 Exercise
1. Write down the first 5 terms of each of the following sequences.
3n
i. an = 3n ii. an = n!
iii. an = (− 14 ) iv. an = sin nπ
2
v. an = 2n
n+3
vi. a1 = 6, an+1 =
1 2
a
3 n

2. Write the next two apparent terms of the sequence. Describe the pattern you used to
find the terms.

i. 2, 5, 8, 11, . . .
ii. 5, 10, 20, 40, . . .
iii. 3, − 32 , 34 , − 38 , . . .
7
iv. 2
, 4, 92 , 5, . . .

3. For each of the following sequences, find an explicit formula for the nth term of the
sequence

i) 51 , −1 1 −1


,
7 9 11
, , . . .
1 3 7 15


ii) 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , . . .
iii. (3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .)

4. For the recursively defined sequence a1 = −4 and an = an−1 + 6, for n ≥ 2, find its
explicit formula.

5. A government program that currently costs taxpayers Ksh. 4.5 billion per year is cut
back by 20% per year.

i. Write an expression for the amount budgeted for this program after n years. Ans:
An = 0.8n−1 (4.5b)
ii. Compute the budgets for the first four years.
√ p √ √
q p
6. Consider the sequence 2, 2 + 2, 2 + 2 + 2, . . .

i. Compute the first five terms of this sequence.

ii. Write a recursion formula for an , for n ≥ 2.

1.6 Convergence of Sequences

A fundamental question that arises regarding infinite sequences is the behavior of the terms
as n gets larger. Since a sequence is a function defined on the positive integers, it makes
sense to discuss the limit of the terms as n → ∞ . For example, consider the following four
sequences and their different behaviors as n → ∞

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

i) 1 + 3n = 4, 7, 10, 13, . . .

The terms 1 + 3n become arbitrarily large as n → ∞. In this case, we say that,

1 + 3n → ∞ as n → ∞

n
ii) 1 − 12 = 12 , 43 , 78 , 15
16
,...

1 n


The terms 1 − 2
→ 1 as n → ∞
iii) (−1)n = −1, 1, −1, 1, . . .

The terms alternate but do not approach one single value as n → ∞

(−1)n
iv) n
= −1, 21 , − 13 , 14 , . . .

(−1)n
The terms alternate for this sequence as well, but n
→ 0 as n → ∞.
Remark 1.2. From these examples, we see several possibilities for the behavior of the terms
of a sequence as n → ∞ .
In two of the sequences, the terms approach a finite number as n → ∞. In the other two
sequences, the terms do not.
If the terms of a sequence approach a finite number L as n → ∞, we say that the
sequence is a convergent sequence and the real number L is the limit of the sequence. We
give an informal definition below.
Definition 1.3. Given a sequence (an ), if the terms an become arbitrarily close to a finite
number L as n becomes sufficiently large, we say (an ) is a convergent sequence and L is the
limit of the sequence. In this case, we write
lim an = L (1.6.1)
n→∞

If a sequence (an ) is not convergent, we say it is a divergent sequence

In the informal definition for the limit of a sequence, we used the terms ”arbitrarily close”
and ”sufficiently large.” Although these phrases help illustrate the meaning of a converging
sequence, they are somewhat vague. To be more precise, we now present the more formal
definition of limit for a sequence.
Definition 1.4. A sequence (an ) is said to converge to a real number L if, given ϵ > 0, there
exists a natural number N (which depends on ϵ) such that
|an − L| < ϵ ∀n ≥ N (1.6.2)
The number L is the limit of the sequence and we write
lim an = L or an → L
n→∞

In this case, we say the sequence (an ) is a convergent sequence. If a sequence does not
converge, it is a divergent sequence, and we say the limit does not exist or is infinite.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

The positive number ϵ is the assigned tolerance demanded. Note that the smaller ϵ is,
the larger we should expect N to be.
Remark 1.5. It is clear from the definition that convergence or divergence of a sequence is
about the behaviour of the ’Tail-end’ of a sequence. Therefore, altering a finite number of
terms of a sequence does not affect its convergence or divergence.

1.7 Limits from the definition

2n+1
1. Let us use the definition to prove that limn→∞ 3n+5
= 23 .
2
Solution It is not clear from the definition how to obtain that the limit is L = 3
.
Fortunately, from Calculus, we know that
2n + 1 2
lim =
n→∞ 3n + 5 3
The definition is not intended as a method of finding limits. It only offers a rigorous
way to develop a theory of limits but an impractical method of computation of limits.

Now, let ϵ > 0 be given. We need to find a number N (ϵ) so that

2n + 1 2
− < ϵ, whenever n > N
3n + 5 3

It is easiest to work backward:

2n + 1 2 7
− = <ϵ
3n + 5 3 3(3n + 5)
3(3n + 5) 1
or >
7 ϵ
7
or 9n + 15 >
ϵ
7
or 9n > − 15
ϵ
7 15
or n > −
9ϵ 9
7 5
or n > −
9ϵ 3
7
We can take N = 9ϵ
− 35 .

The idea is to look for an N (ϵ) that will satisfy the convergence condition |an − L| <
ϵ, ∀n ≥ N.
(−1)n
2. To show that limn→∞ n
= 0, let ϵ > 0 and choose an integer N > 1ϵ . Then

(−1)n 1
− 0 = < ϵ ∀n ≥ N.
n n

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

1
3. Show that limn→∞ n
= 0.

Solution Let ϵ > 0 be given. We must find an N ∈ N such that

1
− 0 < ϵ ∀n ≥ N
n
1
By the Archimedean property, there is an N ∈ N such that 0 < N
< ϵ.

Thus, if n ≥ N, then we have that

1 1 1
−0 = < <ϵ
n n N
1
i.e. limn→∞ n
= 0.

4. The sequence ((−1)n ) oscillates between -1 and 1 and so cannot converge. That is,
suppose (−1)n → a for some a ∈ R.

Choose N such that a − 1 < (−1)n < a + 1 ∀n ≥ N. Thus, if n ≥ N is even, then

1 < a + 1 and if n ≥ N is odd, then a − 1 < −1. Adding these inequalities produces
the absurdity a < a.

5. Show that a sequence (an ) converges to zero if and only if the sequence (|an |) converges
to zero.

Solution Assume that the sequence (an ) converges to zero. Then, given ϵ > 0, there
exists a natural number N (ϵ) such that

|an − 0| = |xn | < ϵ ∀n ≥ N

Now, ∀n ≥ N , we have
||an | − 0| = |an | < ϵ
that is the sequence (|an |) converges to zero. Conversely, assume that the sequence
(|xn |) converges to zero. i.e. given ϵ > 0, ∃N (ϵ) such that

||an | − 0| = |an | < ϵ ∀n ≥ N

It now follows that the sequence (an ) converges to zero.

1.8 Uniqueness of sequence limits

Theorem 1.6. Suppose that (an ) is a sequence such that an → l1 and also an → l2 as
n → ∞. Then l1 = l2 , i.e. a convergent sequence has a unique limit.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

Proof. Let ϵ > 0 be given. Since we know that an → l1 , then by definition, there is some
N1 ∈ N such that
ϵ
|an − l1 | < ∀n > N1
2
Similarly, we know that an → l2 , and by definition, there is some N2 ∈ N such that
ϵ
|an − l2 | < ∀n > N2
2
Let N = max{N1 , N2 }. Then ∀n ≥ N we have that

|l1 − l2 | = |(an − l2 ) + (l1 − an )|

≤ |an − l2 | + |an − l1 |
ϵ ϵ
< + =ϵ
2 2
⇒ |l1 − l2 | < ϵ ⇒ l1 − l2 = 0 ⇒ l1 = l2 .
3n+1 3
exercise 1.7. 1. Show that limn→∞ 4n+1
= 4

2. Use definition of convergence of a sequence to show that

a. limn→∞ 1 − 21n = 1

n−1
b. limn→∞ n+1
=1
√ √

c. limn→∞ n+1− n =0

1.9 Algebra of Sequences

So far we have tested convergence of a given sequence (an ) using the (ϵ, N ) definition. This
presupposes that you know in advance the limit L.
Usually, however, we are not given the value of L. We are only given a sequence (an ) and
asked to decide whether or not it converges and, if it does, to find its limit.
Sequences can be combined by the usual arithmetic operations(addition, subtraction,
product, division). Most sequences encountered can be seen to be composed of simpler
sequences combined together using the arithmetic operations and can be dealt with using
the following Combination Rules.

Theorem 1.8. Given sequences (an ) and (bn ) and any real number c, if there exist constants
M and L such that limn→∞ (an ) = M and limn→∞ (bn ) = L, then

i. limn→∞ c = c

ii. limn→∞ (can ) = c limn→∞ (an ) = c · M

iii. limn→∞ (an ± bn ) = limn→∞ (an ) ± limn→∞ (bn ) = M ± L

iv. limn→∞ (an · bn ) = limn→∞ (an ) · limn→∞ (bn ) = M · L

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

 
an limn→∞ (an ) M
v. limn→∞ bn
= limn→∞ (bn )
= L
provided L ̸= 0 and for each bn ̸= 0.

Proof. We prove only part (iii), the rest left to the reader.
ϵ
Let ϵ > 0 be given. Then ∃N1 and N2 in N such that |an − M | < 2
∀n ≥ N1 and
|bn − L| < 2ϵ ∀n ≥ N2 .
Let N = max{N1 , N2 }.Then for all n ≥ N we have,

|(an + bn ) − (M + L)| = |(an − M ) + (bn − L)|

≤ |an − M | + |bn − L|
ϵ ϵ
< + =ϵ
2 2
Hence limn→∞ (an + bn ) = M + L

1.10 Testing For Convergence of Sequences

Show that each of the following sequences (an ) is convergent and find its limit.
 2 
−4
1. (an ) = 3n
2n2 +1

3n2 −4
Solution Let an = 2n2 +1
. We can rewrite an as
2
an = 3−4/n
2+1/n2
. Note that −4/n2 → 0 and 1/n2 → 0 so that 3−4/n2 → 3 and 2+1/n2 → 2
as n → ∞. It follows that an → 3/2 as n → ∞. Therefore, limn→∞ an = 3/2, and
hence (an ) is convergent
 3 2 
7n −5n +3n−9
2. (an ) = 3n 3 +4n2 −8n+2

Solution: Divide through by highest power of n. Thus, we have limn→∞ an = 7/3,

converges.
 5 
3. (an ) = 2n +4
n3 +6

Solution: The numerator converges to 2 as n → ∞ while the denominator converges

to 0 as n → ∞. limn→∞ an does not exist hence (an ) is divergent.
√
4. (an ) = (−n + n2 + 3n)
√ √ 2 −B 2
Solution an = −n + n2 + 3n = n2 + 3n − n = A − B = AA+B where A =
√ 2 +3n−n2
n2 + 3n, B = n. Therefore, an = √n2 +3n+n = √n2 +3n+n = √ 3
n 3n 3
→ 3/2 as
1+ n +1
n → ∞.

5. (an ) = ((−1)n )

Solution: an = (−1)n , (an ) oscillates between -1 and 1 hence limit does not exist. (an )
diverges.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

 
(n+1)!
6. (an ) = n!

Solution: an = (n+1)!
n!
= (n+1)n!
n!
= n + 1 → ∞ as n → ∞. Hence, the limit does not
exist and (an ) therefore diverges.
 
(n+1)!
7. (an ) = (n+2)!

(n+1)! (n+1)! 1
Solution: an = (n+2)!
= (n+2)(n+1)!
= n+2
→ 0 as n → ∞. Therefore, limit exist and
(an ) converges.
n

8. (an ) = 2n2 .
2n
Solution: an = n2
, apply L’Hopital’s Rule to find limit.
n n 2n (ln 2)2
limn→∞ 2n2 = limn→∞ 2 2nln 2 = limn→∞ 2
→ ∞ as n → ∞. The limit does not
exist and (an ) diverges.
9. (an ) = ((1 + 4/n)n )

Solution: an = (1+4/n)n . Use the fact that limx→0 (1+x)1/x = e or limx→∞ (1+1/x)x =
e.

Let α = 4/n implying n = 4/α. As n → ∞, α → 0 and

limn→∞ (1 + 4/n)n = limα→0 (1 + α)4/α = e4 . Thus, (an ) converges.

Note that limn→∞ (1 + k/n)n = ek .

 
2n+4 5n+1


10. (an ) = 2n−2

2n+4 5n+1


Solution: an = 2n−2
and rewrite an as (1 + α)1/α .
2n+4
2n−2
= 2n−2+6
2n−2
6
= 1 + 2n−2 6
and let α be 2n−2 . This implies that n = 3/α + 1 and as
n → ∞, α → 0. Thus,
2n+4 5n+1


2n−2
= (1 + α)5(1+3/α)+1 = (1 + α)15/α+6 → e15 as α → 0. It converges.
 2 
11. (an ) = ln(n
n
)

ln(n2 )
Solution: an = n
apply L’Hopital’s Rule.

ln(n2 )
lim an = lim
n→∞ n→∞
n 
2n
= lim ÷1
n→∞ n2
 
2
= lim = 0. It converges.
n→∞ n

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

 
2n3 +5
12. (an ) = 3n2 +1

3 2+5/n 3
2n +5
Solution: limn→∞ an = limn→∞ 3n 2 +1 = limn→∞ 3/n+1/n3 . The numerator goes to 2

and the denominator goes to 0. This means (an ) will increase without bound, i.e.
limn→∞ an = ∞. We therefore conclude that the sequence (an ) diverges.

exercise 1.9. Determine in each case if the sequence converges or diverges.

 3 2 
5n +n −6
a. (xn ) = 2n 3 −4n2 −4

 
9n2 −n−3
b. (xn ) = 2n3 +4n2 +n−4
 
5n3 +6
c. (xn ) = 4n2 +n+11

4 n



d. (xn ) = 1+ n
2n


e. (xn ) = n2

1.11 Convergence of Sequences of Continuous Functions

Recall that if f is a continuous function at a value L , then f (x) → f (L) as x → L. Suppose a
sequence (an ) → L and a function f is continuous at L then f (an ) → f (L) = f (limn→∞ an ).
This property often enables one to find limits of complicated sequences.

Theorem 1.10. Consider a sequence (xn ) and suppose there exists a real number L such
that the sequence (xn ) converges to L . Suppose f is a continuous function at L. Then there
exists an integer N such that f is defined at all values xn for n ≥ N , and the sequence
f (xn ) converges to f (L).

Proof. Let ϵ > 0. Since f is continuous at L, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (x) − f (L)| < ϵ if
|x − L| < δ. Since the sequence (xn ) converges to L, there exists an N such that |xn − L| < δ
for all n ≥ N. Therefore, for all n ≥ N , |xn − L| < δ, which implies |f (xn ) − f (L)| < ϵ. We
conclude that the sequence (f (xn )) converges to f (L).
Examples
3



13. Determine whether the sequence cos n2
converges. If it converges, find its limit.

Solution Since the sequence n32 converges

3


to 0, and cos x is continuous at x = 0, we
can conclude that the sequence cos n2 converges and
 
3
lim cos = cos( lim 3/n2 ) = cos(0) = 1
n→∞ n2 n→∞

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

q 
2n+1
14. (an ) = 3n+5
. Determine whether this sequence converges or not.
q q q
2n+1
Solution: limn→∞ 3n+5
= limn→∞ 2n+1
3n+5
= 2
3
. The sequence converges with limit
q
2
3
.
q 
2n+1
exercise 1.11. Determine if the sequence 3n+5
converges. If it converges, find its limit.

1.12 The Squeeze Theorem for Sequences

Another theorem involving limits of sequences is an extension of the Squeeze Theorem for
limits discussed in your differential calculus course. Here an unknown sequence is sand-
wiched between two convergent sequences, allowing one to conclude the convergence of the
sandwiched sequence.

Theorem 1.12. Suppose that (an ) and (bn ) are convergent sequences such that limn→∞ an =
limn→∞ bn and that an ≤ cn ≤ bn for all n. Then (cn ) is also convergent and limn→∞ cn =
limn→∞ an = limn→∞ bn

Proof. Let L be the limit of the two sequences (an ) and (bn ). Choose N1 so that |an − L| < ϵ
if n > N1 , and also choose N2 so that |bn − L| < ϵ if n > N2 .
Set N = max N1 , N2 . Note that

an − L ≤ cn − L ≤ bn − L ∀n

and so
−ϵ < an − L ≤ cn − L ≤ bn − L < ϵ if n > N
From this, we see that −ϵ < cn − L < ϵ or |cn − L| < ϵ. This implies that cn → L as
n → ∞.
Examples:
cos n


15. Use the Squeeze Theorem to find limn→∞ n2

Solution Since −1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1 ∀n, we have

1 cos n 1
− ≤ ≤
n2 n2 n2
Since − n12 → 0 and 1
→ 0, we conclude that
n2
cos n
n2
→ 0 as well as n → ∞.

16. Find the limit of (an ) = sinnnθ .

Solution: Also note that − n1 ≤ sin nθ

n
≤ 1
n
and since − n1 → 0 and 1
n
→ 0, we conclude
that sinnnθ → 0 as well.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

1.13 Limits of Absolute Values

Is absolute value function preserved by the limit operation? The answer is YES as seen
below.

Theorem 1.13. Suppose that (an ) is a convergent sequence. Then the sequence (|an |) is
also a convergent sequence and
lim |an | = | lim an |
n→∞ n→∞

Proof. Let A = limn→∞ an and suppose that ϵ > 0. Choose N so that

|an − A| < ϵ ∀n > N.

Recall that |a − b| ≥ ||a| − |b||. Now take a = an and b = A. Then

||an | − |A|| ≤ |an − A| < ϵ ∀n > N

This implies that ||an | − |A|| < ϵ ∀n > N . Hence, limn→∞ |an | = |A| as required.

1.14 Bounded and Monotone Sequences

We now turn our attention to one of the most important theorems involving sequences: the
Monotone Convergence Theorem (MCT). Before stating the MCT theorem, we begin
by defining what it means for a sequence to be bounded.

1.14.1 Bounded Sequences

Definition 1.14. A sequence (an ) is said to be

i) bounded above if there is a real number M such that an ≤ M, ∀n ∈ N

ii) bounded below if there is a real number m such that m ≤ an , ∀n ∈ N

iii) bounded if it is bounded above and below. Otherwise it is unbounded.

Thus, a sequence (an ) is bounded if there is a positive real number M such that

|an | ≤ M, ∀n ∈ N

Examples
1
is bounded since 0 < n1 ≤ 1∀n ∈ N


17. The sequence n

18. The sequence n + n1 is bounded below by 2 but is not bounded above.

19. The sequence ((−1)n n) is not bounded above and it is not bounded below.

20. The sequence ((−1)n ) is bounded above by 1 and bounded below by -1.

21. The sequence (2n) and (n2 ) are unbounded.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

Note that the sequence (an ) = ((−1)n ) = (−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . .) is bounded above by 1 and
bounded below by -1 but oscillates between -1 and 1 and so cannot converge i.e. limit does
not exist. This shows that a bounded sequence is not necessarily convergent. However, a
convergent sequence is necessarily bounded as shown below.

Theorem 1.15. If (an ) is convergent, then (an ) is bounded.

Proof. Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers which converges to say L. Then, for every
ϵ > 0, there is an N so that

|an − L| < ϵ whenever n > N

In particular we could take just one value of ϵ, say ϵ = 1, and find a number N so that

|an − L| < 1 whenever n ≥ N

From this, we see that

|an | = |an − L + L| ≤ |an − L| + |L| ≤ 1 + |L|

It follows that |an | ≤ 1 + |L| for all n ≥ N.

This is the type of inequality needed to prove that (an ) is bounded, but it does not
include the terms a1 , a2 , . . . , aN . To complete the proof, we let K be the maximum of the
numbers |a1 |, |a2 |, . . . , |aN −1 |, 1 + |L|. It follows that

|an | ≤ K ∀n

as required.
Remark 1.16. The converse of above theorem is not necessarily true. That is, there are
sequences which are bounded but do not converge. One such example is the sequence ((−1)n )
which is bounded below by -1 and above by 1 but does not converge since the limit does
not exist. We shall however see later that every bounded sequence which is monotone will
always converge.
From the above Theorem, we obtain the following test for divergence of a sequence.

Corollary 1.17. If (an ) is unbounded, then (an ) is divergent.

Examples:

22. The sequence (2n) and ((−1)n n) are both unbounded, so they are both divergent.

23. We shall show that the sequence

1 1 1 1
sn = 1 + + + + ··· +
2 3 4 n
diverges.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

Solution: The easiest proof is to show that it is unbounded and hence by the corollary
above it diverges.

We watch only at the steps 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . and make a rough lower estimate of s1 , s2 , s4 , s8 , . . .

in order to show that there can be no bound on the sequence. After a bit of arithmetic,
we see that
s1 = 1
1
s2 = 1 +
2  
1 1 1 1
s4 = 1+ + + > 1 + + 2(1/4)
2 3 4 2
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s8 = 1+1 + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
≥ 1 + + 2(1/4) + 4(1/8)
2
and in general, that
n
s2 n ≥ 1 +
∀n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
2
Thus, the sequence is not bounded and so must diverge.
exercise 1.18. Which of the following sequences are bounded?
 2 
n n +n−4 1+2n



1. n+4 2. n+5
3. 2n

√
4. 1 − 21n


5. (1 + (−1)n ) 6. ( n n)

1.14.2 Monotone Sequences

In many applications of sequence theory, we find that the sequences that arise are going in
one direction, i.e. they are either increasing or decreasing. The analysis of such sequences is
much easier than for general sequences.
Definition 1.19. Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers. We say that (an ) is
a) increasing if for each n ∈ N, an ≤ an+1
b) decreasing if for each n ∈ N, an+1 ≤ an
c) monotone if (an ) is increasing or decreasing.
If the sequence is neither increasing nor decreasing, then the sequence is not monotone.
For example the sine function i.e. f (x) = sin x is not monotone.
Remark 1.20. • An increasing sequence (an ) is bounded below by a1 ; a decreasing
sequence (bn ) is bounded above by b1 .

• It therefore follows that an increasing sequence is bounded if and only if it is bounded

above.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

• Similarly, a decreasing sequence is bounded if and only if it is bounded below

• Thus, if (an ) is increasing then limn→∞ an = sup(an ) and if (an ) is decreasing then
limn→∞ an = inf(an ).
Examples of monotonic sequences 1. The sequences (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . .), (1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , n, . . .), (1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3,
are increasing
2. The sequences (1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . , 1/n, . . .), (3, 1, 0, 0, −3, −7, . . .) are decreasing
3. The sequence (n2 ) is strictly increasing
4. The sequence (−n) is strictly decreasing.
5. The sequences ((−1)n n), ((−1)n+1 ) are not monotone.
3n 3x


6. The sequence (an ) = n+2 is monotone. Letting an = f (x) = x+2 , we see that
′ 6
f (x) = (x+2)2 > 0 ∀x = 1, 2, 3, . . . and by the first derivative test for increasing/decreasing
functions, f (x) is increasing and consequently, (an ) is increasing and hence monotone.
Up to now, we know that if a sequence converges, then there is some way of finding its
limit explicitly. However, it is sometimes possible to prove that a sequence is convergent,
even though we do not know its limit. This situation occurs with monotonic sequences that
are bounded.

Theorem 1.21. A monotone sequence converges if and only if it is bounded.

Proof. We know that if a sequence converges then it is bounded. To prove the converse, let
(an ) be a bounded increasing sequence. Since (an ) is bounded above, the set {an : n ∈ N}
has a least upper bound (supremum), L say.
We claim that limn→∞ an = L. Let ϵ > 0 be given. By the characterization of supremum,
there is an integer N such that aN > L − ϵ. Since (an ) is increasing, an ≥ aN ∀n > N
and so an > L − ϵ ∀n > N . Thus, |an − L| = L − an < ϵ ∀n > N . This implies that
|an − L| < ϵ ∀n > N .
The proof for the case when the sequence (an ) is decreasing is similar.
3n


The MCT tells us that a sequence such as n+2 which is increasing and bounded above
by 3 must be convergent.
MCT is often used when we suspect that a sequence is convergent, but we cannot find
the actual limit.

24. Show that n+1

n
is a convergent sequence.

Solution We show that the sequence is monotone and bounded. Its convergence will
then follow from the Monotone Convergence Theorem above.

Monotonicity

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

Consider fx = x+1x
for all x ∈ [1, ∞). Then f ′ (x) = − x12 < 0 for all x ∈ [1, ∞). Thus,
f is decreasing on [1, ∞). Therefore, f (n) > f (n + 1) i.e. n+1
n
> n+2
n+1
for all n ∈ N

Boundedness n+1n
= 1 + n1 >
1∀n ∈ N. Thus, the sequence is bounded below below by
1. Thus, the sequence n+1
n
is convergent by the MCT.
 
25. Show that the sequence √1n is convergent.

Solution Note that √1n > 0∀n ∈ N and hence the sequence is bounded from below. We
have to show that the sequence is monotone decreasing.

Consider f (x) = √1x for all x ∈ [1, ∞). Then f ′ (x) = − 2x13/2 < 0 for all x ∈ [1, ∞).
1
Thus, f is decreasing on [1, ∞). Therefore, √n+1 < √1n . So the sequence is monotone
 
decreasing and bounded from below (hence bounded). Convergence of √1n follows
from MCT.

26. Show that (sin(n)) is not convergent using the MCT.

Solution: The sine function is bounded above by 1 and bounded below by -1 but is
not monotone and hence does not converge by the MCT.

n

exercise 1.22. 1. Show that 1 + n1 is a convergent sequence, and hence find its limit.
n

2. Show that the sequence 4n! is convergent.
3. Give an example of a sequence that is
a) bounded but not convergent
b) Convergent but not bounded
c) monotonic but not bounded
d) monotonic and bounded but not convergent
e) unbounded but not monotonic
f) divergent to ∞ but not monotonic
g) convergent but not monotonic.

1.15 Subsequences
The sequence (1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 4, −4, 5, −5, . . .) appears to contain within itself the two
sequences
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .) and
(−1, −2, −3, −4, −5, . . .)

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

In order to have a language to express this, we introduce the term subsequence. We say
that the latter two sequences are subsequences of the first sequence.
A subsequence of (an ) is just a sequence of terms from (an ) with one requirement that each
term in the sequence is moving further along in the original sequence. For example, from the
sequence (1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 4, −4, 5, −5, . . .) we can pick the subsequence (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .)
and (−1, −2, −3, −4, −5, . . .).

Definition 1.23. Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers and let (nk ) be a sequence of
natural numbers such that n1 < n2 < n3 < . . . . Then (an1 , an2 , an3 , . . .) is a subsequence of
(an ) and is denoted by (ank ) i.e. (ank ) = (asn1 , an2 , an3 , . . . , ank , . . .)

Example:
1. We can consider 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . to be a subsequence of sequence (1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 4, −4, 5, −5, . . .)
because it contains the first, third, fifth, e.t.c. terms of the original sequence. Here
n1 = 1, n2 = 3, n3 = 5, . . . and pick from (1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 4, −4, 5, −5, . . .) elements
a1 , a3 , a5 , a7 , . . ..
2. Let (an ) be the sequence (1, 2, 1/2, 3, 1/3, . . .). Then (1, 1/2, 1/3, . . .) and (1, 2, 1/3, . . .)
are subsequences of (an ) while (1/2, 1, 1/3, 3, . . .) is not a subsequence of (an ).

Theorem 1.24. Let (an ) be a sequence which converges to a. Then any subsequence of (an )
converges to a.

Proof. Let (ank ) be a subsequence of (an ) and let ϵ > 0 be given. Then ∃ an N ∈ N such
that |an − a| < ϵ for each n ≥ N. Thus, when k ≥ N , we have that nk ≥ k ≥ N and so
|ank − a| < ϵ ∀k ≥ N . Thus, limk→∞ ank = a.
From this result, we note that if a sequence (an ) has two convergent subsequences whose
limits are not equal then the sequence (an ) is divergent.
We now state the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem which guarantees existence of a conver-
gent subsequence for any bounded sequence.

1.16 Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem

We have seen that if a sequence is convergent, then certainly it must be bounded. However,
if a sequence is bounded, it does not follow that it is necessarily convergent.
Our next result shows that, if a sequence is bounded, then even though it may diverge,
it cannot behave ’too badly’ !

Theorem 1.25. Every bounded sequence (an ) of real numbers contains a convergent subse-
quence.

Proof. Left to the reader.

This Theorem gives the condition for the existence of convergent subsequences.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

1.17 Cauchy Sequences

Definition 1.26. A sequence (an ) is called a Cauchy sequence if given any ϵ > 0, ∃ an
N ∈ N such that
|an − am | < ϵ ∀n, m ≥ N
or equivalently, (an ) is a Cauchy sequence if

lim |an − am | = 0.
n,m→∞

Examples
n+1
1. Show that the sequence (an ), where an = n
, is a Cauchy sequence.
Solution: For all n, m ∈ N
   
n+1 m+1
|an − am | = −
n m
mn + m − nm − n
=
mn
m−n m+n
= ≤
nm nm
m+n 2m
Therefore, if m ≥ n, then |an − am | ≤ mn
≤ nm
= n2 .
1
Let ϵ > 0 be given. Then there is an N ∈ N such that N
< 2ϵ . Thus, for all n ≥ N, we
have
|an − am | = n+1 − m+1 < n2 < N2 < ϵ



n m

Hence, (an ) is a Cauchy sequence.

n+1
2. Show that the sequence (xn ), where xn = 1 − 2!1 + · · · + (−1)n! , is a Cauchy sequence.
Solution: For n, m ∈ N with m ≥ n, we have that
(−1)n+1 (−1)m+1
   
1 1
|xn − xm | = 1 − + ··· + − 1 − + ··· +
2! n! 2! m!
n+2 n+3 m+1
(−1) (−1) (−1)
= + + ··· +
(n + 1)! (n + 2)! m!
1 1 1
≤ + + ··· +
(n + 1)! (n + 2)! m!
 
1 1 1 1 1 1
≤ n + n+1 + · · · + m−1 = n 1 + + · · · + m−n−1 use the fact that n! ≥ 2n−1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 
2 1 2 1
= n 1 − ( )m−n < n = n−1 < ϵ
2 2 2 2
⇒ 2n−1 > 1ϵ ⇒ 2n > 2ϵ ⇒ n > log2 2ϵ = N (ϵ). Thus, given ϵ > 0 there exists N (ϵ) = log2 2
ϵ
such that |xn − xm | < ϵ. Therefore, (xn ) is Cauchy.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

1 1 1
3. Determine whether the sequence (xn ) where xn = 1 + 5
+ 52
+ ··· + 5n
is a Cauchy
sequence.
Solution: Take m > n
   
1 1 1 1
|xm − xn | = + 2 1 − + 2 1
5 5 + · · · + 5m 5 5 + ··· + 5n
1 1 1
= n+1
+ n+2 + · · · + m
5  5 5 
1 1 1 1
= 1 + + 2 + · · · + m−n−1
5n+1 5 5 5
 
1 1 1
≤ n+1
1 + + 2 + · · · G − series
5 5 5
 
1 1 1
= n+1
= <ϵ
5 1 − 1/5 4 · 5n

This implies 5n > 4ϵ1 and hence n > log5 4ϵ1 . Thus, given ϵ > 0 there exists N (ϵ) = log5 1
4ϵ
such that |xm − xn | < ϵ ∀n, m > N . Therefore, (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.
 
n2 −1
exercise 1.27. Prove that n2
is Cauchy using directly the definition of Cauchy se-
quences.
Some Properties of Cauchy Sequences
Theorem 1.28. Every convergent sequence (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.
Proof. Assume that (xn ) converges to x. Then, given any ϵ > 0, there exists an N ∈ N such
that
|xn − x| < ϵ/2 ∀n ≥ N
Now for all n, m ≥ N we see that

|xn − xm | = |(xn − x) + (x − xm )|
≤ |xn − x| + |x − xm |
< ϵ/2 + ϵ/2 = ϵ

i.e. (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.

Theorem 1.29. Every Cauchy sequence (xn ) is bounded.
Proof. Let ϵ = 1. Then there exists an N ∈ N such that |xn − xm | < 1 ∀n, m ≥ N . Choose
a k ≥ N and observe that
|xn | = |xn − xk + xk | ≤ |xn − xk | + |xk | < 1 + |xk | ∀n ≥ N .
Let M = max{|x1 |, |x2 |, . . . , |xN |, 1 + |xk |}. Then
|xn | ≤ M, ∀n ∈ N and therefore (xn ) is bounded.

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1.18 Cauchy Convergence Criterion

The Monotone Convergence Theorem is useful and important, but it has the significant
drawback that it applies only to sequences that are monotone.
It is important for us to have a condition implying the convergence of a sequence that does
not require us to know the value of the limit in advance and is not restricted to monotone
sequences.
The Cauchy Criterion, gives a condition for convergence of a sequence that does not
require us to know in advance the value of the limit and is not restricted to monotone
sequences. Loosely the criterion asserts that a sequence converges if and only if the terms of
the sequence are eventually arbitrarily close together.

Theorem 1.30. A sequence (xn ) is convergent if and only if it is a Cauchy sequence i.e.
for each ϵ > 0 there exists an integer N with the property that

|xn − xm | < ϵ whenever n, m ≥ N

Proof. Let (xn ) be a convergent sequence. Then it follows that (xn ) is Cauchy. Conversely,
let (xn ) be a Cauchy sequence. We have to show that (xn ) is convergent to some real number.
Since (xn ) is Cauchy, we have that (xn ) is bounded. Therefore, by the Bolzano-Weierstrass
Theorem, there is a subsequence (xnk ) that converges to some real number x∗ .
We claim that (xn ) converges to x∗ .
Let ϵ > 0 be given. Then there exists natural numbers N1 and N2 such that
|xn − xm | < ϵ/2 ∀n, m ≥ N1 and |xnk − x∗ | < ϵ/2 ∀ k ≥ N2
Let N = max{N1 , N2 }. Then ∀n ≥ N, we have
|xn − x∗ | ≤ |xn − xnk | + |xnk − x∗ | < ϵ/2 + ϵ/2 = ϵ
Therefore, xn → x∗ as n → ∞ verifying the claim.
Examples:
 
(−1)n
1. Use Cauchy’s criterion to show that the sequence converges. n
 n

Solution: We must show that the sequence (−1) n
is Cauchy. To that end, let ϵ > 0
(−1)n
and xn = n
. Then, ∀n, m ∈ N with m ≥ n,
(−1)n (−1)m 1 1 1 1 2
|xn − xm | = n
− m
≤ n
+ m
≤ n
+ n
= n

Now, there is an N ∈ N such that 2/N < ϵ. Thus ∀n ≥ N, we have

 
(−1)n (−1)m 2 2 (−1)n
|xn − xm | = n − m ≤ n ≤ N < ϵ. Thus n
is a Cauchy sequence. Therefore,
the sequence converges by the Cauchy Convergence Criterion.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

2. Show that the sequence (xn ), where xn = 1 + 12 + 13 + · · · + n1 , diverges.

Solution: It suffices to show that (xn ) is not Cauchy. Now for n, m ∈ N with n > m, we
have
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
|xn − xm | = 1 + + + ··· + − 1 + + + ··· +
2 3 n 2 3 m
1 1 1
= + + ··· +
m+1 m+2 n
1 1 1
+ + ··· +
m+1 m+2 n
1 1 1 n−m
> + + ··· + =
|n n {z n} n
n−m terms

In particular, if we take n = 2m, we get

|xn − xm | = 1 + 12 + 13 + · · · + n1 − 1 + 12 + 13 + · · · + m1 > n−m
= 21 . Thus, (xn ) is



n
not Cauchy.

exercise 1.31. 1. Show that the sequence n1 is convergent.

2. Show that the sequence (1 + (−1)n ) is not Cauchy.

1 (−1)n+1
3. Show that the sequence (xn ) where xn = 1 − 2!
+ ··· + n!
is convergent.

1.19 Limit Superior and Limit Inferior

The limit superior (lim sup) and limit inferior (lim inf) allow us to reduce questions about
the convergence and limits of general real sequences to ones about monotone sequences.
Unlike the limit, the lim sup and lim inf of every bounded sequences of real numbers exist.
A sequence converges if and only if its lim sup and lim inf are equal in which case its limit is
their common value.
A sequence is unbounded if and only if at least one of its lim sup or lim inf diverges to ±∞
and it diverges to ±∞ if and only if both its lim sup and lim inf diverges to ±∞.
In order to define the lim sup and lim inf of a sequence (xn ) of real numbers, we introduce
the sequences (yn ) and (zn ) obtained by taking the sup and inf, respectively, of the ’tails’ of
(xn ) :

yn = sup{xk : k ≥ n} zn = inf{xk : k ≥ n}
As n increases, the sup and inf are taken over smaller sets, so (yn ) is monotone decreasing
and (zn ) is monotone increasing.
The limit of these sequences are the lim sup and lim inf, respectively, of the original sequence.

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

Definition 1.32. Suppose that (xn ) is a sequence of real numbers. Then

lim sup xn = lim yn , yn = sup{xk : k ≥ n}

n→∞ n→∞

lim inf xn = lim zn , zn = inf{xk : k ≥ n}

n→∞ n→∞

Examples:
1. Consider the bounded, increasing sequence (0, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, . . .), xn = 1 − 1/n
defining yn and zn as above, we have

yn = sup{1 − 1/k : k ≥ n} = 1, zn = inf{1 − 1/k : k ≥ n} = 1 − 1/n

limn→∞ yn = 1 and limn→∞ zn = limn→∞ (1 − 1/n) = 1. Thus,

lim sup xn = lim yn = 1 and lim inf xn = lim zn = 1

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

In this case, the sequence (xn ) converges.

2. Consider the bounded, non-monotonic sequence (1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . .), xn = (−1)n+1 .
Then,
yn = sup{(−1)k+1 : k ≥ n} = 1, zn = inf{(−1)k+1 : k ≥ n} = −1
Thus,
lim sup xn = lim yn = 1 and lim inf xn = lim zn = −1
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

In this case the original sequence does not converge since lim supn→∞ xn ̸= lim inf n→∞ xn .
Alternatively, one can find lim sup and lim inf of (xn ) = ((−1)n+1 ) as follows:
Consider the sequence (xn ) where for each n ∈ N, xn = (−1)n . Then

(xn ) = (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) = (−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . .)

To study the ’limit’ of this sequence, consider some subsequences of the original sequence.

(x1 , x3 , x5 , . . .) = (−1, −1, −1, . . .)

(x2 , x4 , x6 , . . .) = (1, 1, 1, . . .)

After considering all subsequences of (xn ), we have a set of collection of limit of subsequences
L i.e.
L = {−1, 1}
We define limit superior and limit inferior of (xn ) to be

lim sup xn = sup L = 1

n→∞
lim inf xn = inf L = −1
n→∞

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Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

3. Find lim supn→∞ an and lim inf n→∞ an of

 n
n+1
if n is odd
an = 1
n+1
if n is even

Solution: By writing a few terms we have

1 1 3 1 5 1 7
(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , . . .) = ( , , , , , , , . . .)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
By simple observation, we see that there are two possible limits i.e.
(a1 , a3 , a5 , . . .) = ( 12 , 34 , 56 , . . .) → 1
(a2 , a4 , a6 , . . .) = ( 13 , 15 , 17 , . . .) → 0
Thus,
L = {0, 1} and lim sup an = sup L = 1, lim inf an = inf L = 0
n→∞ n→∞

4. Consider the unbounded, non-monotone sequence (xn ) = (1, −2, 3, −4, 5, . . .). Find lim sup
and lim inf
Solution: We have two subsequences

(1, 3, 5, . . .) and (−2, −4, −6, . . .)

and L = {∞, −∞} and lim supn→∞ xn = sup L = ∞, lim inf n→∞ xn = inf L = −∞.
Thus, the sequence does not converge.
5. Consider the sequence (1, 1/2, 3, 1/4, 5, . . .). Find lim sup and lim inf
Solution: We have two subsequences

(1, 3, 5, . . .) and (1/2, 1/4, 1/6, . . .)

and L = {∞, 0} and lim supn→∞ xn = sup L = ∞, lim inf n→∞ xn = inf L = 0.
Thus, the sequence does not converge.
n+1


6. Consider the sequence (2, −3/2, 4/3, −5/4, . . .), xn = (−1)n+1 n
. Find lim sup
and lim inf
Solution: We have two subsequences

(2, 4/3, 6/5, . . .) and (−3/2, −5/4, −7/6, . . .)

and L = {1, −1} and lim supn→∞ xn = sup L = 1, lim inf n→∞ xn = inf L = −1.
Thus, the sequence does not converge.

exercise 1.33. For each of the following, find the limit superior and limit inferior of the
sequence

©2024 David Ambogo 25

Sequences of Real Numbers MMA 325: Real Analysis I

(−1)n
1. (xn ) where xn = n+1
n
2. (xn ) where xn = 2(−1)n + n+1

3. (an ) where  1
2 n+1 if n is odd
an =
1 if n is even

©2024 David Ambogo 26