Contents

Introduction to DOS (Disk Operating System) 2

Key Features of DOS: 2
Common DOS Commands: 2
Advantages of DOS: 2
Disadvantages of DOS: 2
DOS in Modern Context: 2
Summary 2
History of DOS (Disk Operating System) 2
1. Origins of DOS: 2
2. Early Personal Computers and the Need for DOS: 3
3. MS-DOS and IBM PC: 3
4. Growth and Versions of MS-DOS: 3
5. Transition to Windows and the End of MS-DOS as a Primary OS: 4
6. Legacy of DOS: 4
Summary of DOS History: 5
Booting Process of DOS (Disk Operating System) 5
1. Power-On Self-Test (POST): 5
2. BIOS Loads the Bootloader: 5
3. MBR (Master Boot Record): 6
4. Loading the DOS Boot Loader: 6
5. Loading the Command Interpreter (COMMAND.COM): 6
6. Initialization of DOS Environment: 7
7. DOS Prompt (C:>) Appears: 7
8. Optional Autoexec.bat and Config.sys (Optional Setup Files): 7
Summary of the DOS Booting Process: 7
File & Directory Structure in DOS 8
1. File System Structure 8
2. File & Directory Naming Rules in DOS 8
3. File & Directory Hierarchy Example 9
4. Common DOS Commands for File and Directory Management 10
Summary of DOS File & Directory Structure and Naming Rules: 10
DOS System Files 10
1. IO.SYS 11
2. MSDOS.SYS 11
 3. COMMAND.COM 11
4. CONFIG.SYS 11
5. AUTOEXEC.BAT 12
6. DRVSPACE.BIN (for compressed drives) 12
7. HIMEM.SYS 12
8. EMM386.EXE 12
9. SMARTDRV.SYS 13
10. SHARE.EXE 13
Summary of DOS System Files: 13

Introduction to DOS (Disk Operating System)

DOS (Disk Operating System) is an operating system that allows users to interact
with their computer and manage files, hardware, and applications through text-based
commands. It was widely used in the 1980s and early 1990s before graphical user
interfaces (GUIs) like Windows became more common.

Key Features of DOS:

1. Command-Line Interface (CLI):

o DOS primarily uses a text-based interface where users type commands
to execute tasks. It does not have a graphical user interface (GUI) like
modern operating systems.
o Users input commands to perform operations like creating, deleting,
and moving files, and running programs.
2. File Management:
o DOS allows users to manage files on storage devices (such as hard
disks or floppy disks) through commands like DIR (list files), COPY
(copy files), and DEL (delete files).
3. System Control:
o DOS provides users with direct control over the system's hardware and
software.
o Users can configure system settings, manage memory, and access
peripherals like printers or disk drives.
4. Simple and Lightweight:
o DOS was designed to be lightweight and run on computers with limited
resources (like early personal computers with minimal RAM and CPU
power).
5. Command Syntax:
o Commands in DOS follow a specific syntax and can include parameters
or options to modify their behavior. For example, the command DIR C:
lists all files on the C drive.
Common DOS Commands:

 DIR: Lists the files and directories in the current folder.

 COPY: Copies files from one location to another.
 DEL: Deletes a file.
 REN: Renames a file.
 CD: Changes the current directory.
 CLS: Clears the screen.
 TYPE: Displays the contents of a file.
 FORMAT: Formats a disk for use.

Advantages of DOS:

1. Efficiency: DOS uses minimal system resources, making it ideal for older or
less powerful computers.
2. Direct Control: It gives users more control over system functions and
hardware compared to modern OSes.
3. Simple Structure: The command-line interface is simple and effective for
experienced users who are familiar with the commands.

Disadvantages of DOS:

1. Limited Functionality: DOS does not support multitasking or modern graphics,

which limits its use in complex tasks.
2. No GUI: The lack of a graphical interface makes it less user-friendly for those
unfamiliar with command-line inputs.
3. Compatibility Issues: DOS lacks support for modern hardware and software,
making it outdated for current computing needs.

DOS in Modern Context:

Although DOS is no longer used as a primary operating system for most users, it still
plays a role in system maintenance and troubleshooting. Many modern operating
systems (including Windows) include a Command Prompt, which is similar to DOS
and allows users to interact with the system using text-based commands.

Summary

DOS is an early operating system that provides a command-line interface for file
management and system control. While it is largely obsolete today, its simple design
and efficiency were crucial in the development of personal computing and the
evolution of modern operating systems.

History of DOS (Disk Operating System)

DOS (Disk Operating System) is one of the most important milestones in the
development of personal computing. It was widely used in early microcomputers
before the rise of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) like Windows. Here’s a brief
overview of its history:

1. Origins of DOS:

 1960s - Early Beginnings:

o The concept of operating systems that manage hardware resources on
a computer dates back to the 1960s. Early operating systems were
developed for large computers (mainframes), such as IBM's OS/360.
o However, the personal computer revolution in the 1970s required a
simpler, more compact operating system that could work on
microcomputers.

2. Early Personal Computers and the Need for DOS:

 1975 - The Altair 8800:

o The Altair 8800, one of the first personal computers, did not come with
an operating system. Users had to program it manually using machine
code or BASIC.
o To make personal computing easier, there was a growing demand for
an operating system that could handle hardware resources efficiently.
 1976 - The First PC Operating System (CP/M):
o Before DOS, CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers), created by
Gary Kildall of Digital Research, became the dominant operating
system for early microcomputers.
o CP/M was designed to manage floppy disk drives, making it useful for
personal computers. However, CP/M was not compatible with the
hardware of IBM’s new personal computer (PC).

3. MS-DOS and IBM PC:

 1981 - IBM PC and the Birth of MS-DOS:

o In 1981, IBM launched its first personal computer, the IBM PC (Model
5150), but it lacked an operating system.
o IBM initially approached Digital Research to license CP/M, but after
negotiations failed, IBM turned to Microsoft. At the time, Microsoft was
known for its software development, but it did not have its own
operating system.
o Microsoft acquired a system called QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating
System), developed by Tim Paterson of Seattle Computer Products.
QDOS was a clone of CP/M with some additional features.
o Microsoft then adapted QDOS and renamed it MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk
Operating System).
 MS-DOS 1.0:
 o In August 1981, MS-DOS 1.0 was released as the official operating
system for the IBM PC. It was a simple, text-based operating system
with limited capabilities (e.g., it supported only 160 KB of RAM, and it
had no subdirectories).

4. Growth and Versions of MS-DOS:

 1982 - MS-DOS 2.0:

o The second version of MS-DOS introduced support for hard drives
(previously, MS-DOS only worked with floppy disks), improved file
management, and the introduction of directories (folders).
 1983 - MS-DOS 3.0:
o With the release of MS-DOS 3.0, support for larger hard drives and
improved networking capabilities were added.
 1984 - MS-DOS 3.1:
o MS-DOS 3.1 introduced support for 3.5-inch floppy disks and further
improvements in memory management.
 Late 1980s to Early 1990s:
o Over the next several years, MS-DOS went through multiple updates
and versions, with MS-DOS 6.22 being one of the last standalone
versions released in 1994.
o MS-DOS became the foundation for Microsoft’s Windows operating
systems, though Windows began to evolve into a graphical user
interface (GUI) system in the early 1990s.

5. Transition to Windows and the End of MS-DOS as a Primary OS:

 1990 - Windows 3.0:

o With Windows 3.0, Microsoft introduced a GUI that ran on top of MS-
DOS. While MS-DOS still served as the underlying operating system,
users interacted with Windows through graphical elements like icons
and windows, rather than a command-line interface.
 1995 - Windows 95:
o Windows 95 was a major milestone for Microsoft. It was the first
operating system to integrate MS-DOS and Windows into one package.
o MS-DOS was still used for legacy support, but Windows 95 marked the
transition to a full GUI-based operating system. After this, MS-DOS was
no longer the core OS for Windows.
 Late 1990s - MS-DOS Legacy:
o As Windows evolved, MS-DOS became less relevant. It was no longer
included in Windows by default after Windows 98, though users could
still access the Command Prompt in modern versions of Windows.

6. Legacy of DOS:

 Command Prompt:
 o Even after MS-DOS was replaced by Windows, the Command Prompt
remained in Windows operating systems as a way to run command-line
tools and scripts.
 Emulators:
o MS-DOS emulators (like DOSBox) were developed for running older
DOS games and applications on modern hardware, helping preserve its
legacy.
 Influence on Modern Operating Systems:
o DOS had a significant impact on the development of modern operating
systems, especially in how computers handle file systems, disk
management, and basic command-line operations.

Summary of DOS History:

1. Early Development: DOS traces its origins back to the need for an operating
system to run on microcomputers in the late 1970s.
2. Microsoft's MS-DOS: MS-DOS was born in 1981 when IBM needed an
operating system for its PC. Microsoft adapted QDOS to create MS-DOS,
which became the standard OS for IBM-compatible PCs.
3. Growth and Features: Over time, MS-DOS evolved, adding more functionality
like support for hard drives, subdirectories, and networking.
4. Transition to Windows: As Windows became more advanced, it incorporated
MS-DOS into its system but eventually phased it out with the release of
Windows 95.
5. Legacy: MS-DOS’s influence is still seen in modern Windows systems with the
Command Prompt and in software like DOS emulators.

DOS played a crucial role in the early years of personal computing and laid the
groundwork for modern operating systems.

Booting Process of DOS (Disk Operating System)

The booting process of DOS refers to the sequence of steps that the computer
follows to start up and load the operating system into memory from a storage device
(like a hard drive or floppy disk). Here’s a detailed overview of the DOS booting
process:

1. Power-On Self-Test (POST):

When the computer is powered on, the first thing that happens is the POST. This is a
diagnostic test conducted by the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) to check the
hardware components such as the CPU, RAM, storage devices, and peripheral
devices to ensure they are functioning correctly.

 If there are no issues, the BIOS moves to the next step.

 If there are any hardware issues, an error message or a series of beeps may
indicate the problem.
2. BIOS Loads the Bootloader:

Once the POST is complete, the BIOS searches for the operating system (OS) stored
on a bootable device, such as a floppy disk, hard drive, or CD-ROM (depending on the
system configuration). The BIOS looks for the Master Boot Record (MBR), which
contains the bootloader—the program that will load the operating system into
memory.

 The BIOS typically searches the boot devices in a predefined order (floppy,
hard drive, CD-ROM, etc.), which is configurable in the BIOS settings.

3. MBR (Master Boot Record):

The MBR is located in the first sector of the bootable storage device (usually the first
512 bytes). It contains a small program that is responsible for loading the operating
system into memory.

 The MBR contains information about the disk's partition table, helping the
system know where the operating system is located.
 The MBR also contains a bootloader which is executed when the system
starts.

4. Loading the DOS Boot Loader:

Once the BIOS finds the bootable device and reads the MBR, it passes control over to
the bootloader. In the case of MS-DOS, the IO.SYS file is typically the first file loaded.
This file contains the necessary system files for initializing the operating system.

 IO.SYS: The IO.SYS file contains the core input/output system of DOS,
handling interactions with the hardware.

After IO.SYS is loaded, DOS then loads the MSDOS.SYS file.

 MSDOS.SYS: This is another system file that contains system configuration

and setup routines for DOS. It handles disk management, file system
management, and the initialization of DOS itself.

5. Loading the Command Interpreter (COMMAND.COM):

Once IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS are loaded into memory, the next step is to load the
COMMAND.COM file, which is the DOS command interpreter. COMMAND.COM is
the program that allows users to interact with the system using commands.

 COMMAND.COM: This file acts as the shell that enables the user to input
commands and interact with the system. It reads and executes commands
 typed by the user, such as DIR (list files), COPY (copy files), etc.

6. Initialization of DOS Environment:

After COMMAND.COM is loaded, the operating system completes its initialization.

This process involves setting up the system environment, including:

 Allocating Memory: Memory is allocated for the command interpreter and

other system processes.
 Loading Device Drivers: Necessary device drivers for hardware components
like the keyboard, screen, disk drives, and printers are loaded to ensure proper
interaction with the computer hardware.

7. DOS Prompt (C:>) Appears:

Finally, the system is ready for user interaction. The DOS prompt appears on the
screen, indicating that the operating system has fully loaded and is ready to accept
user commands. The prompt typically looks like this:

makefile
Copy code
C:\>

This is the command-line interface where users can type DOS commands to interact
with the system.

8. Optional Autoexec.bat and Config.sys (Optional Setup Files):

In older versions of DOS, two important files—AUTOEXEC.BAT and

CONFIG.SYS—could be automatically executed during the boot process to configure
system settings and set up environment variables.

 CONFIG.SYS: Contains configuration settings for the system, such as memory

management and device drivers.
 AUTOEXEC.BAT: Contains a series of commands that are automatically
executed, like setting up paths for executable files and loading additional
programs.

Summary of the DOS Booting Process:

1. POST (Power-On Self-Test) checks the hardware.

2. BIOS loads the MBR (Master Boot Record) from the bootable device.
3. The MBR loads IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS.
4. COMMAND.COM (the command interpreter) is loaded.
5. The system environment is initialized, including device drivers.
 6. The DOS Prompt (C:>) appears, indicating that DOS is ready for use.
7. AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS (if present) are executed for further
configuration.

This entire booting process makes the DOS operating system functional, allowing
the user to start interacting with the computer through the command-line interface.

File & Directory Structure in DOS

The file and directory structure in DOS is hierarchical, meaning that files are
organized into a tree-like structure, with directories (folders) acting as containers for
files and other directories. The DOS file system is designed to allow users to
organize and manage files efficiently. Here’s an overview of how files and directories
are structured in DOS, along with the naming rules:

1. File System Structure

 Root Directory:
o The root directory is the topmost directory in the file system. It is represented
by a backslash (\), and it contains all other directories and files.
o Example: C:\ represents the root directory of the C: drive.
 Subdirectories:
o Directories can contain files and other directories (subdirectories). These are
organized in a tree-like structure, where the root is the starting point, and
directories branch out from there.
o Example: C:\Program Files\Microsoft is a directory called Microsoft located
inside another directory called Program Files, which is inside the root
directory C:\.
 File Paths:
o A file path is a string that describes the location of a file or directory in the
system.
o Example: C:\Documents\Reports\report.txt is the path to the report.txt file,
located inside the Reports directory, which is inside the Documents directory,
located in the C: drive.

2. File & Directory Naming Rules in DOS

When naming files and directories in DOS, certain rules and limitations apply. These
rules are designed to ensure that the file system can correctly store, retrieve, and
manage files.

File Naming Rules:

1. Maximum Length:
o File names in DOS can have a maximum of 8 characters for the filename,
followed by a 3-character file extension (8.3 naming convention).
o Example: file.txt is a valid file name, with file as the name and txt as the
 extension.
2. No Spaces:
o File names cannot contain spaces. Spaces are not allowed in filenames,
though they can be used in directory names (in some later versions of DOS
and Windows).
o Example: myfile.txt is valid, but my file.txt is not.
3. Valid Characters:
o File and directory names can include letters (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9), and the
following special characters: period (.), hyphen (-), and underscore (_).
o Invalid characters include: <, >, :, ", /, \, |, ?, *.
4. Extension:
o The file extension (after the period) indicates the type of file and its
associated program. For example, .txt indicates a text file, .exe indicates an
executable file, and .jpg indicates a JPEG image file.
o While the extension can be up to 3 characters long, DOS typically uses 3-
character extensions, though later systems like Windows allow longer
extensions.
5. Case Insensitivity:
o DOS file and directory names are not case-sensitive. For example, FILE.TXT is
the same as file.txt in DOS.

Directory Naming Rules:

1. Length:
o Directory names in DOS can be up to 8 characters long, following the same
8.3 naming convention as files.
o Example: MyDocs is a valid directory name, but My Documents is not (because
of the space).
2. Special Characters:
o Like file names, directory names can only contain letters (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-
9), hyphen (-), underscore (_), and periods (.).
o Spaces are generally not allowed in directory names in DOS, although later
versions of Windows allow spaces.
3. Root and Subdirectories:
o The root directory is represented by a single backslash (\), while
subdirectories are separated by additional backslashes.
o Example: C:\Programs\Games refers to the Games directory, located inside the
Programs directory on the C: drive.

3. File & Directory Hierarchy Example

 Root Directory (C:\)

o Programs Directory (C:\Programs)
 Games Subdirectory (C:\Programs\Games)
 Game File (C:\Programs\Games\game.exe)

In this example, the game.exe file is stored in the Games subdirectory, which is
inside the Programs directory, which is located in the root directory C:\.
4. Common DOS Commands for File and Directory Management

 DIR: Lists the files and directories in the current directory.

o Example: DIR C:\ lists all files and subdirectories in the root directory of the C:
drive.
 CD: Changes the current directory.
o Example: CD C:\Programs\Games changes to the Games directory inside
Programs.
 MD: Creates a new directory.
o Example: MD C:\NewFolder creates a new directory called NewFolder on the C:
drive.
 COPY: Copies files from one location to another.
o Example: COPY file.txt D:\Backup\file.txt copies file.txt to the Backup directory
on the D: drive.
 DEL: Deletes a file.
o Example: DEL C:\file.txt deletes the file.txt from the root directory.
 REN: Renames a file or directory.
o Example: REN oldname.txt newname.txt renames oldname.txt to newname.txt.
 RD: Removes a directory (must be empty).
o Example: RD C:\EmptyFolder removes the EmptyFolder directory from the C:
drive.

Summary of DOS File & Directory Structure and Naming Rules:

1. File structure is hierarchical, starting from the root directory (C:\).

2. Naming rules for files include:
o A maximum of 8 characters for the name and 3 characters for the extension
(8.3 format).
o No spaces or special characters, except for periods, hyphens, and
underscores.
o Extensions help identify the type of file (e.g., .txt, .exe).
3. Directory structure mirrors the file structure, with directories containing files or other
directories.
4. Common DOS commands for managing files and directories include DIR, CD, COPY,
DEL, REN, and MD.

Understanding the file and directory structure of DOS is crucial for navigating,
managing, and organizing files effectively in a DOS-based system.

DOS System Files

DOS (Disk Operating System) relies on several key system files to function properly.
These system files are essential for the operating system to load, configure
hardware, and manage system resources. Below is a list of the key DOS system files,
their functions, and their roles in the operating system.

1. IO.SYS
  Purpose: IO.SYS is a crucial system file in DOS that handles input and output
operations, such as disk access and peripheral device control.
 Function: This file contains the basic input/output system (BIOS) for
interacting with the hardware. It is loaded first during the booting process.
 Role: It initializes hardware components like the keyboard, screen, and disk
drives. It also sets up memory management.
 Location: Found in the root directory of the bootable disk (usually C:\).

2. MSDOS.SYS

 Purpose: MSDOS.SYS is another core system file that is loaded immediately

after IO.SYS.
 Function: It contains the core of the DOS operating system. This file helps
manage the system's configuration and overall operation.
 Role: It provides basic system management functions, such as handling file
systems (FAT) and managing memory.
 Location: Located in the root directory (usually C:\), it is usually hidden and
system-protected.

3. COMMAND.COM

 Purpose: COMMAND.COM is the command interpreter for DOS. It is responsible

for processing and executing commands typed by the user.
 Function: It reads the command entered by the user, interprets it, and
executes the appropriate action (e.g., file management, running programs).
 Role: It serves as the shell of the operating system, providing the user
interface for command-line operations.
 Location: Located in the root directory (C:\).

4. CONFIG.SYS

 Purpose: CONFIG.SYS is a configuration file that contains system settings and

parameters for configuring hardware and software during the boot process.
 Function: This file is used to configure device drivers, set up memory
management, and customize the system's operation.
 Role: It allows the user to define how DOS interacts with various hardware
devices (e.g., disk drives, printers).
 Location: Typically located in the root directory (C:\).

5. AUTOEXEC.BAT

 Purpose: AUTOEXEC.BAT is a batch file that contains a series of commands that

are automatically executed when the system starts.
 Function: It is used to configure the environment, load device drivers, set up
paths for executable files, and run programs automatically.
  Role: This file can automate routine tasks such as setting environment
variables, loading memory-resident programs (TSRs), or launching programs.
 Location: Typically located in the root directory (C:\).

6. DRVSPACE.BIN (for compressed drives)

 Purpose: DRVSPACE.BIN is used by DOS to support compressed drives (a

feature provided by Microsoft DriveSpace).
 Function: This file is used to store and manage compressed data on a disk to
save storage space.
 Role: It allows users to compress large volumes of data, effectively increasing
disk space.
 Location: It is typically found on the root directory of the compressed drive.

7. HIMEM.SYS

 Purpose: HIMEM.SYS is a memory management file that enables DOS to

manage extended memory beyond the 640KB limit of conventional memory.
 Function: It allows the system to access the first megabyte of extended
memory (above 1MB), providing better memory management, especially for
more complex applications.
 Role: This file is essential for running DOS programs that require more
memory than conventional RAM allows.
 Location: Typically found in the root directory (C:\).

8. EMM386.EXE

 Purpose: EMM386.EXE is a memory manager used for expanded memory.

 Function: This file allows DOS to manage and use expanded memory (EMS)
above 1MB. It is particularly useful for running older applications that require
EMS.
 Role: It provides a way to manage memory in a more efficient manner,
especially for software requiring more than 1MB of RAM.
 Location: Located in the root directory or system directory, depending on
configuration.

9. SMARTDRV.SYS

 Purpose: SMARTDRV.SYS is a disk caching program that helps improve the

performance of hard drive and floppy disk operations.
 Function: It stores frequently accessed data in memory (RAM), allowing faster
access to files by reducing disk I/O operations.
 Role: By caching frequently used data, it improves the speed and
responsiveness of the system.
 Location: Typically found in the root directory.
10. SHARE.EXE

 Purpose: SHARE.EXE is used to provide file and record locking and sharing
capabilities for DOS.
 Function: It ensures that files opened by multiple users or processes are
locked properly to prevent data corruption.
 Role: This file is important when running networked applications or multi-user
systems.
 Location: It is generally loaded from the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.

Summary of DOS System Files:

1. IO.SYS: Initializes hardware and handles I/O operations.

2. MSDOS.SYS: Provides the core DOS functionality.
3. COMMAND.COM: The command interpreter that processes user commands.
4. CONFIG.SYS: Configures hardware settings and device drivers.
5. AUTOEXEC.BAT: Automatically executes commands and sets up the
environment.
6. DRVSPACE.BIN: Used for disk compression.
7. HIMEM.SYS: Manages extended memory.
8. EMM386.EXE: Manages expanded memory.
9. SMARTDRV.SYS: Disk caching for improved performance.
10. SHARE.EXE: Provides file and record locking for shared file access.

These system files are essential for the operation of DOS and control how the
system interacts with hardware, loads the OS, manages memory, and processes
commands. They ensure that DOS can function efficiently, allowing users to perform
tasks like file management, running programs, and configuring system settings.

Internal Commands

Internal commands are built into the command interpreter (COMMAND.COM) and are
immediately available to the user.

1. DIR:

o Lists files and directories in the current directory.

o Syntax: DIR [drive:][path][filename]

o Options: /P, /W, /S, /A

2. CLS:

o Clears the screen.

o Syntax: CLS

3. VER:

o Displays the version of the DOS operating system.

 o Syntax: VER

4. VOL:

o Displays the volume label and serial number of a disk.

o Syntax: VOL [drive:]

5. DATE:

o Displays or sets the system date.

o Syntax: DATE (to set, you will input the new date)

6. TIME:

o Displays or sets the system time.

o Syntax: TIME (to set, you will input the new time)

7. COPY:

o Copies files from one location to another.

o Syntax: COPY [source] [destination]

o Options: /Y, /V (for verification)

8. TYPE:

o Displays the contents of a text file on the screen.

o Syntax: TYPE filename

9. REN:

o Renames a file or directory.

o Syntax: REN [old_filename] [new_filename]

10. DEL:

o Deletes one or more files.

o Syntax: DEL filename

o Options: /P (prompt before deleting)

11. CD (Change Directory):

o Changes the current directory.

o Syntax: CD [directory]

12. MD (Make Directory):

o Creates a new directory.

o Syntax: MD [directory_name]

13. RD (Remove Directory):

 o Deletes a directory.

o Syntax: RD [directory_name]

14. PATH:

o Displays or sets a search path for executable files.

o Syntax: PATH [path]

External Commands

External commands are stored on disk and are loaded into memory when required.

1. CHKDSK:

o Checks the disk for errors and displays a status report.

o Syntax: CHKDSK [drive:]

2. XCOPY:

o Copies files and directory trees.

o Syntax: XCOPY [source] [destination]

o Options: /S, /E, /H, /I

3. PRINT:

o Sends a text file to the printer.

o Syntax: PRINT [filename]

4. DISKCOPY:

o Copies the entire contents of one floppy disk to another.

o Syntax: DISKCOPY [source_disk] [destination_disk]

5. DISKCOMP:

o Compares the contents of two floppy disks.

o Syntax: DISKCOMP [drive1:] [drive2:]

6. DOSKEY:

o Edits command lines, recalls commands, and creates macros.

o Syntax: DOSKEY [macroname=commands]

7. TREE:

o Graphically displays the directory structure of a drive or path.

o Syntax: TREE [drive:][path]

8. MOVE:

o Moves files from one directory to another.

 o Syntax: MOVE [source] [destination]

9. LABEL:

o Creates, changes, or deletes the volume label of a disk.

o Syntax: LABEL [drive:] [label]

10. APPEND:

o Allows programs to open files in specified directories as if they were in the

current directory.

o Syntax: APPEND [path]

11. FORMAT:

o Prepares a disk for use by erasing all data and creating a new file system.

o Syntax: FORMAT [drive:]

12. SORT:

o Sorts input from a file or standard input.

o Syntax: SORT < [filename]

13. FDISK:

o Manages disk partitions.

o Syntax: FDISK

14. BACKUP:

o Backs up files to another disk or directory.

o Syntax: BACKUP [source] [destination]

15. EDIT:

o Launches a text editor for creating or modifying text files.

o Syntax: EDIT [filename]

16. MODE:

o Configures system devices, including printers and display settings.

o Syntax: MODE [device] [parameters]

17. ATTRIB:

o Displays or changes file attributes.

o Syntax: ATTRIB [operation] [attributes] [filename]

18. HELP:

o Provides help information for DOS commands.

 o Syntax: HELP [command_name]

19. SYS:

o Copies the system files onto a disk to make it bootable.

o Syntax: SYS [source] [destination]

These commands are widely used in DOS and command-line environments, and knowing
how to use them can be quite beneficial for file management and system administration
tasks.