GETTING TO GRIPS WITH

LWMO/LVO/AWOPS

An over-view for those pilots who may

be unfamiliar with LOW VISIBILITY
OPERATIONS.
Note: Type specific FCOM 3, FOP OPS
Man PART A, and VOL 2 Pt.1 (PORT
PAGES) take precedence in ALL cases.

Developed by Airbus
Modified for use by Cathay Pacific (2009)
OVERVIEW

This document outlines the concepts behind Low Visibility Operations, as well as the requirements
to obtain and maintain LWMO certification.
The objective of CAT II / CAT III operations is to provide an equivalent level of safety when landing
in low visibility conditions compared to that of 'normal' operating conditions. Category II /
Category III constitutes the main part of All Weather Operations (AWO), termed LWMO in CX.
Category I operations, take-off, and taxiing in low visibility are also considered in AWO.
Although CAT II and CAT III represent a significant investment for an airline, it results in lower costs
incurred by otherwise expensive diversions and passenger compensation, as well as preventing
degradation of the airline's image. ICAO, FAA, and JAA regulations are slightly different, although
similar concepts exist for CAT II and CAT III operations.
Approval for CAT II / CAT III operations is dependent on four elements in order to maintain the
required level of safety:
 the weather
 the aircraft
 the airfield
 the flight crew
An aircraft type must be approved for CAT II / CAT III operations with systems which provide
automatic control of the aircraft during approach and landing.
The airfield must be approved for CAT II / CAT III operations.
Crew training divided into ground instruction on the philosophy of LWMO, and approved simulator
or airborne training.
The operator files for approval having demonstrated that a required level of flight crew training,
procedures and safety is being met.

2
CHAPTER 1

GENERAL
Landing in low visibility is perhaps one of the most "exciting" ways to operate an aircraft but is
certainly the most demanding. Such progress in civil aviation was made possible by huge
improvements in aircraft automatic control systems over the last 30 years coupled with stringent
requirements for airfield equipment and crew qualification. In Category III, pilots see the runway
lights only few seconds (about 5 seconds) before touchdown, therefore there is no margin for
error. The basis for Category II/III operations, such as aircraft certification or airline operational
demonstration, ensures a high level of safety. Moreover, approach success rate in actual in-line
services is now nearly 100%.
A BRIEF HISTORY
On 9 January 1969, a Caravelle of AIR INTER became the first aircraft in the history of civil aviation
to land in actual Category IIIA conditions during a commercial flight (Lyon-Paris). The operational
approval had only been obtained from the SGAC (France) only two months before in November
1968. This approval was the direct result of successful flight tests made since 1962 during which an
automatic landing system was tested (5 March 1963 at Toulouse: first automatic landing without
visibility). Since then, many aircraft were granted approval for Category IIIA, such as the Trident,
the B747 (1971) or Concorde (1975). Fail-operational automatic landing was first used for these
types of operations, but it was found useful to develop fail-passive capability in order to satisfy
airline requests.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS
CAT II / CAT III equipment represent a significant cost for an airline. However, it is the only way to
keep in-line services during the whole year without any diversion. Weather conditions mainly
depend on the airfield location; nevertheless actual CAT II or CAT III conditions may occur at any
airfield during some periods of the year, Hong Kong and Taipei being good local examples,
particularly so now with increasing levels of pollution. Diversions are expensive for any airline:
directly by passenger compensation costs but also by the ensuing bad "image". For these reasons,
getting operational approval for CAT II and CAT III approaches may be considered as a necessary
step in the evolution of any modern airline.

3
CHAPTER 2

WEATHER IMPACTS ON AVIATION

According to FAA statistics, weather is the cause of approximately 70 percent of the delays in the
National Airspace System (NAS). In addition, weather continues to play a significant role in a
number of aviation accidents and incidents. While National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
reports most commonly find human error to be the direct accident cause, weather is a primary
contributing factor in 23 percent of all aviation accidents.
CEILING AND VISIBILITY
Low ceiling and reduced visibility are safety hazards for all types of aviation. The NASDAC study of
NTSB statistics indicated that ceiling and visibility were cited as contributing factors in 24 percent
of all general aviation accidents between 1989 and early 1997. They were also cited as
contributing factors in 37 percent of commuter/air taxi accidents during the same period. Low
ceiling and poor visibility accidents occur when pilots who are not properly rated or are flying an
aircraft not equipped with the necessary instrumentation encounter such conditions, resulting in
loss of control, or controlled flight into terrain.
FOG
Fog, by definition, is a cloud that begins within 50 feet of the surface. It typically occurs when the
temperature of air near the ground is cooled to the air´s dewpoint. At this point, water vapour in
the air condenses and becomes visible in the form of fog. Fog is classified according to the manner
in which it forms and is dependent upon the current temperature and the amount of water vapor
in the air. While fog is a type of a cloud, the term "fog" is typically distinguished from the more
generic term "cloud" in that fog is low-lying, and the moisture in the fog is often generated locally
(such as from a nearby body of water, like a lake or the ocean, or from nearby moist ground or
marshes). On clear nights, with relatively little to no wind present, radiation fog may develop.
Fog forms when the difference between
temperature and dew point is generally less than
2.5 °C or 4 F. Fog normally occurs at a relative
humidity near 100%. This can be achieved by
either adding moisture to the air or dropping the
ambient air temperature.[ Fog can form at lower
humidities, and fog can sometimes not form with
relative humidity at 100%. A reading of 100% relative humidity means that the air can hold no
additional moisture; the air will become supersaturated if additional moisture is added.
Fog can form suddenly, and can dissipate just as rapidly, depending what side of the dewpoint the
temperature is on. This phenomenon is known as flash fog.
Another common type of formation is associated with sea fog (also known as haar or fret). This is
due to the peculiar effect of salt. Clouds of all types require minute hygroscopic particles upon
which water vapor can condense. Over the ocean surface, the most common particles are salt
from salt spray produced by breaking waves. Except in areas of storminess, the most common
areas of breaking waves are located near coastlines, hence the greatest densities of airborne salt
particles are there. Condensation on salt particles has been observed to occur at humidities as low
as 70%, thus fog can occur even in relatively dry air in suitable locations such as the California

4
coast. Typically, such lower humidity fog is preceded by a transparent mistiness along the coastline
as condensation competes with evaporation, a phenomenon that is typically noticeable by
beachgoers in the afternoon. Another recently-discovered source of condensation nuclei for
coastal fog is kelp. Researchers have found that under stress (intense sunlight, strong evaporation,
etc.), kelp release particles of iodine which in turn become nuclei for condensation of water
vapor.[
The thickness of fog is largely determined by the altitude of the inversion boundary, which in
coastal or oceanic locales is also the top of the marine layer, above which the airmass is warmer
and drier. The inversion boundary varies its altitude primarily in response to the weight of the air
above it which is measured in terms of atmospheric pressure. The marine layer and any fogbank it
may contain will be "squashed" when the pressure is high, and conversely, may expand upwards
when the pressure above it is lowering.
Figure 21: Radiation fog.
Usually, it forms in low-lying areas like
mountain valleys. This type of fog occurs
when the ground cools rapidly due to
terrestrial radiation, and the surrounding
air temperature reaches its dewpoint. As
the sun rises and the temperature
increases, radiation fog will lift and
eventually burn off. Any increase in wind
will also speed the dissipation of radiation
fog. If radiation fog is less than 20 feet
thick, it is known as ground fog.
When a layer of warm, moist air moves
over a cold surface, advection fog is likely to occur. Unlike radiation fog, wind is required to form
advection fog. Winds of up to 15 knots allow the fog to form and intensify; above a speed of 15
knots, the fog usually lifts and forms low stratus clouds. Advection fog is common in coastal areas
where sea breezes can blow the air over cooler landmasses. In these same coastal areas, upslope
fog is likely as well. Upslope fog occurs when moist, stable air is forced up sloping land features
like a mountain range. This type of fog also requires wind for formation and continued existence.
Upslope and advection fog, unlike radiation fog, may not burn off with the morning sun, but
instead can persist for days. They also can extend to greater heights than radiation fog.
Steam fog, or sea smoke, forms when cold, dry air moves over warm water. As the water
evaporates, it rises and resembles smoke. This type of fog is common over bodies of water during
the coldest times of the year. Low-level turbulence and icing are commonly associated with steam
fog.
Ice fog occurs in cold weather when the temperature is much below freezing and water vapor
forms directly into ice crystals. Conditions favorable for its formation are the same as for radiation
fog except for cold temperature, usually -25°F or colder. It occurs mostly in the arctic regions, but
is not unknown in middle latitudes during the cold season.

5
CHAPTER 4

This chapter addresses some essential definitions and concepts for CAT II or III operations. The
definitions are taken from ICAO, FAA, or JAA documents and are presented in a separate way
when necessary.

AIRPORT MINIMA AND ALL WEATHER OPERATIONS

Refer to FOP OPS MAN PART A:
8.1.3 Airport and En-Route Operating Minima
8.3.26.6 Autoland
8.4 All Weather Operations/LWMO (AWO)
CAT II OBJECTIVE
The main objective of CAT II operations is to provide a level of safety equivalent to other
operations, but in more adverse weather conditions and lower visibility.
The desired level of safety includes:
 Airborne equipment, non visual aids (ILS), visual aids, (runway marking/lights), flight crew
training and procedures, ATC procedures, a/c maintenance, airfield maintenance, obstacle
clearance criteria.
An automatic landing system is mandatory to perform Category II operations. The CX exception is
for the A340, for Cat 2 ops at specific ports as noted on the Port Pages.
CATEGORY III
A CAT III operation is a precision approach to lower than CAT II minima.
CAT Ill is divided in three sub-categories: CAT III A, CAT III B, and CAT III C, associated with three
minima levels (CAT III A being the highest minima, and CAT III C with the lowest minima).
CAT III OBJECTIVE
The main objective of CAT Ill operations is to provide a level of safety equivalent to other
operations, but in the most adverse weather conditions and associated visibility.
In contrast to other operations, CAT III weather minima do not provide sufficient visual references
to allow a manual landing to be made. The minima only permit the pilot to decide if the aircraft
will land in the touchdown zone (basically CAT III A) and to ensure safety during rollout (basically
CAT III B).
Therefore an automatic landing system is mandatory to perform Category III operations. Its
reliability must be sufficient to control the aircraft to touchdown in CAT III A operations and
through rollout to a safe taxi speed in CAT III B (and CAT III C when authorized).
As for CAT II operations, the desired level of safety is achieved with more stringent requirements.
Note about automatic landing: Automatic landing is not CAT III per se. An automatic landing
system is only equipment providing automatic control of the aircraft during the approach and
landing and has no knowledge of the particular weather conditions. This system is mandatory for
all CAT II and CAT III operations. (caveat AIRBUS port page notes). On the occasions that automatic
6
landings are performed in good visibility (training, validation etc.) the ILS performance must be
sufficient and ILS signals protected.
DECISION HEIGHT AND ALERT HEIGHT
In CAT II / CAT III regulations, two different heights are defined:
 the Decision Height (DH) and
 the Alert Height (AH).
DECISION HEIGHT DEFINITION
Decision height is the wheel height above the runway elevation by which a go-around must be
initiated unless adequate visual reference has been established and the aircraft position and
approach path have been assessed as satisfactory to continue the approach and landing in safety
(JAA).
There are no significant differences in DH definitions between the various regulations.
In this definition, runway elevation means the elevation of the highest point in the touchdown
zone.

VISUAL REFERENCES AT DH
Because the tem “adequate visual reference” could be open to interpretation, JAA has defined
criteria for CAT II and CAT III for visual reference at DH which are now commonly accepted.
For CAT II and CAT III A, a pilot may not continue the approach below DH unless a visual reference
containing not less than a 3 light segment of the centreline of the approach lights or runway
centreline or touchdown zone lights or runway edge lights is obtained. For CAT III B the visual
reference must contain at least one centreline light.
The CAD approved visual references for CX aircraft are:-

CAT II Runway and threshold environment

CAT III A Three centreline lights
CAT III B One centreline light
CAT III B(no DH) No visual reference required

ALERT HEIGHT DEFINITION

An Alert Height is a height above the runway, based on the characteristics of the aeroplane and its
‘fail-operational’ automatic landing system, above which a Category III approach would be
discontinued and a missed approach initiated if a failure occurred in one of the redundant parts of
the automatic landing system, or in the relevant ground equipment (ICAO).
DECISION HEIGHT AND ALERT HEIGHT CONCEPT

DECISION HEIGHT CONCEPT:

Decision height is a specified point in space at which a pilot must make an operational decision.
The pilot must decide if the visual references adequate to safely continue the approach have been
established.
7
If the visual references have not been established, a go-around must be executed; except in the
case of a CAT IIIb approach when none are required.
If the visual references have been established, the approach can be continued. However, the pilot
may always decide to execute a go-around if sudden degradations in the visual references or a
sudden flight path deviation occur.
In Category II operations, DH is always limited to 100ft or Obstacle Clearance Height (OCH),
whichever is higher. In Category III operations with DH, the DH is lower than 100ft (typically equal
to 50ft for a fail-passive automatic landing system and 15-20ft or 0ft for a FAIL-OPERATIONAL
automatic landing system).
The DH is measured by means of radio-altimeter.
When necessary, the published DH takes into account the terrain profile before runway threshold.

ALERT HEIGHT CONCEPT:

Alert height is a height defined for Category III operations with a fail-operational landing system

ABOVE ALERT HEIGHT

Immediately after recognizing the fault from the crew alerting system, instrument flags, or engine
indications, check autoland status annunciation.
If the autoland status annunciation has not changed, and the equipment is not required for the
approach or can be switched, (e.g., flight director), continue the approach.
 if the autoland status annunciation has changed, or the equipment is required for the
approach, adjust to the appropriate higher minimums or go-around. However, if suitable
visual reference is established, consider landing.

AT OR BELOW ALERT HEIGHT

For any EICAS/ECAM alert, continue the approach to an automatic landing and rollout unless NO
AUTOLAND is displayed.
The pilot should not intervene unless it is clearly evident that pilot action is required.
A thorough fault analysis was included as a part of the fail operational certification. Below 200 ft.
AGL a safe landing and rollout can be made with any probable failure conditions.
Flight crew alerts (messages, lights, or aurals) may occur at any time during the approach.
If a master caution or warning (amber or red light illuminated with the associated aural) occurs
below alert height, do not disengage the autopilot unless the autopilot system is not controlling
the aircraft adequately.
Below alert height, multiple autopilots protect against any probable system failure and will safely
land the aircraft. The pilot should not intervene below AH unless it is evident that pilot action is
required. If a fault affects the autothrottle or autobrakes, take charge of the thrust and braking.
Accomplish related procedures for system faults after rollout is complete and manual control of
the aircraft is resumed.
If the autopilot is unintentionally disengaged below alert height, the landing may be completed if
suitable visual reference is established.

8
Alert Height is evaluated during aircraft certification. The AH is only linked to the probability of
failure(s) of the automatic landing system. Operators are free to select an AH lower than the AH
indicated in the AFM but not a higher value.
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
Categories II and III operations require rapidly updated and reliable reports of the visibility
conditions which a pilot may expect to encounter in the touchdown zone and along the runway;
TOUCHDOWN, MIDPOINT, ROLLOUT. Reported Visibility Values are not appropriate for
conditions encountered during the final approach and landing in low visibility, because the
visibility observations are often several miles away from the touchdown zone of the runway.
Therefore RVR measurements are used in preference.
Note: RVR is not the Slant Visual Range (SVR). SVR is defined as the range over which
a pilot of an aircraft in the final stages of approach or landing can see the markings or the lights as
described in RVR definition

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE MEASUREMENTS

For Category II and Category III operations, the RVR
measurements are provided by a system of calibrated
transmissometers and account for the effects of ambient
background light and the intensity of runway lights (see
Chapter 6 for further details).
Transmissometer systems are strategically located to provide
RVR measurements associated with three basic portions of a
runway:
 the touchdown zone (TDZ),
 the mid-runway portion (MID), and
 the rollout portion or stop end.
Notes: Touchdown and Midpoint RVR are mandatory for Cat II
and III approaches. Approaches to US and Canadian fields in
LWMO have some subtle distinctions with respect to required RVR’s / RVR transmissometer
failures, and crosswind. Refer to VOL2 pt 2. The applicable port pages take these into account.

9
ESTABLISHMENT OF RVR MINIMA
In Category II and Category III operations, the minima are expressed in terms of DH and RVR. It is
relatively simple to establish the DH. But it is more difficult to establish the RVR to be associated
with that DH in order to ensure the required three-light segment visual reference.

THEORY OF RVR MINIMA DETERMINATION

The basic principles for the establishment of RVR minima are that the scale of visual reference
required by a pilot at and below DH depends on the task that he has to carry out and that the
degree to which his vision is obscured depends on the nature of the meteorological phenomena
which creates the low visibility conditions.
Research using flight simulators and flight tests have shown that:
 most pilots require visual contact to be established about three seconds above DH though
it has been observed that this reduces to about one second when a fail-operational
automatic landing system is being used;
 to establish lateral position and cross-track velocity, most pilots require to be able to see
not less than a three-light segment of the centreline of the approach lights, or runway
centreline, or runway edge lights ;
 to maintain a lateral level, most pilots require to be able to see a lateral element of the
ground pattern, i.e. an approach lighting cross-bar, the landing threshold, or a barrette of
the touchdown zone lighting ;
 to make an accurate adjustment to the flight path in the vertical plane, such as a flare,
using purely visual cues, most pilots require to be able to see a point on the ground which
has a low or zero rate of apparent movement relative to the aircraft.
Minimum visual segments at DH have been established for each category. Typical values are 60m
for CAT III and 90m for CAT II automatic landing and 225m for CAT II with manual landing.
Note 1: the visual segment is the runway segment that a pilot can see from his position
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON PILOT'S EYE POSITION

SEAT POSITION
The correct seat adjustment is
essential in order to take full
advantage of the visibility over the
nose. The pilots’ eye position is
very important during low
visibility approaches and landing.
A too-low seat adjustment may
greatly reduce the visual segment.
When the eye reference position
is lower than intended, the
already short visual segment is
further reduced by the cut-off angle of the glareshield or nose. Most aircraft are equipped with an
eye position indicating device.

10
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON LANDING LIGHTS

USE OF LANDING LIGHTS

At night in low visibility conditions, landing lights can be detrimental to the
acquisition of visual references. Reflected light from water droplets or snow may actually reduce
visibility. Landing lights would therefore not normally be used in CAT ll or CAT III weather
conditions

FAIL-PASSIVE AUTOMATIC LANDING SYSTEM

An automatic landing system is fail-passive if, in the event of a failure, there is no significant
out-of-trim condition or deviation of flight path or attitude but the landing is not completed
automatically. For a fail-passive automatic landing system the pilot assumes control of the aircraft
after a failure (JAA).
FAIL-OPERATIONAL AUTOMATIC LANDING SYSTEM
An automatic landing system is fail-operational if, in the event of a failure below alert height, the
approach, the flare and landing can be completed by the remaining part of the automatic system.
In the event of failure, the automatic landing system will operate as a fail-passive system (JAA).
CONCEPT OF MINIMA
Regulations often use the term minima. In fact, this term could refer to different concepts:
 Airfield operating minima: established in accordance with the airport authority and
published on approach charts.
 Operator's minima: lowest minima that an operator is allowed to use at a specified airfield,
following an approval from its operational authority.
 Crew minima: lowest minima that the crew is authorized to operate, depending on the
crew qualification.
 Aircraft minima: lowest minima which have been demonstrated during aircraft
certification. These minima are indicated in the AFM.
For all CAT II / CAT III operations, these minima consist of a DH and an RVR.

11
CHAPTER 4

APPROACH PREPARATION

AIRCRAFT STATUS
Check that the required landing capability is available.

WEATHER
Check weather conditions at destination and at alternates. Required RVR values must be available
for CAT II/III approaches. The selected alternate must have weather conditions equal to or better
than CAT I. (LWMO mimima cannot be used as a basis to calculate minima for filing as an
alternate).

APPROACH BAN
Policy regarding an approach ban may differ from country to country. Cathay Pacific policy is that
if the RVR readings decrease below the specified minima above a 1000ft AAL, the approach may
be continued to 1000ft AAL. If the RVR remains below minima at 1000ft AAL the approach shall be
discontinued. (Approach Ban).
If the reported RVR readings decrease below the specified minima when BELOW 1000ft AAL, the
approach may be continued to the DH/DA. Provided the required visual reference is established
and maintained, the approach may be continued to a landing. (None required for CatIIIB NO DH
approaches)

ATC CALLS
Unless LVP are reported active by ATIS, clearance to carry out a CAT II or CAT III approach must be
requested from ATC, who will check the status of the ILS and lighting and protect the sensitive
areas from incursion by aircraft or vehicles. Such an approach may not be undertaken until the
clearance has been received.

RVR REPORTING
Touchdown, midpoint, and rollout values are passed to aircraft when they drop below specific
values (generally 800m). Changes in RVR values are reported to the pilot in 50m increments,with a
delay not exceeding 30 secs. When below 400m rvr, the reports should be in 25m increments,
delay not to exceed 15 secs.

REVERSION TO CAT I OR CAT II DUE TO TRAFFIC.

If RVR readings improve during the approach, ATC may revert to Cat I ops and cancel LVP, with a
loss of signal protection. In addition, some European ports restrict LWMO operations to CAT II only
to permit higher traffic density. Requests for a cat III approach are generally not entertained.

CAT II OR CAT III CREW BRIEFING

Brief the following:

12
  Suitable Alternate
 Aircraft serviceability
 Landing Minima
 LWMO Flight Procedures
 Air Traffic Procedures
 Reversionary minima (weather permitting)
 LVP approved taxiways – Autobrake selection?
APPROACH PROCEDURES
The procedures given in FCOM for CAT II and CAT III approaches make the best use of the
automatic system of the aircraft.

TASK SHARING
CMDR and FO task sharing must be clearly defined in the Airline Operations Manual.
The Pilot Flying (PF) and Pilot Monitoring (PM) shall be LWMO qualified
The PF shall be the CMDR/PIC operating from the left seat except when an emergency or crew
incapacitation exists.
VISUAL REFERENCES

OPERATIONS WITH DH
It should be stressed that the DH is the lower limit of the decision zone during which, in limiting
conditions, the CMDR will be assessing the visual references. CMDR should come to this zone
prepared for a go around but with no pre-established judgement. The CMDR should make a
decision according to the quality of the approach and the way the visual references develop as DH
is approached.

A) CAT II OPERATIONS
In CAT II operations the conditions required at DH to continue the approach are that the visual
references should be adequate to monitor the continued approach and landing, and that the flight
path should be acceptable. If both these conditions are not satisfied, it is mandatory to initiate a
go around.
The visual references required at DH in CAT II operations to continue the approach may be any of
the following:
 a segment of the approach light system,
 the runway threshold,
 the touchdown zone.

B) CAT III OPERATIONS

In CAT III operations with DH, the condition required at DH is that there should be visual
references, which confirm that the aircraft is over the touchdown zone. Go around is mandatory if
the visual references do not confirm this.

13
CAT III WITHOUT DH
For this category of operation, the decision to continue does not depend on visual references,
even though a minimum RVR is specified (see OPERATING MINIMA). It is nevertheless good
airmanship to confirm aircraft position with available visual references. However, the decision
depends only on the operational status of the aircraft and ground equipment. If a failure occurs
prior to reaching the AH, a go-around will be made. A go around must nevertheless be performed
if the autoland warning is triggered below AH.

LOSS OF VISUAL REFERENCES

A. OPERATIONS WITH DH - BEFORE TOUCHDOWN

If the decision to continue has been made and the visual references subsequently become
insufficient (for the appropriate category), or the flight path deviates unacceptably, a go-around
must be initiated.

B. OPERATIONS WITH AND WITHOUT DH - AFTER TOUCHDOWN

If the visual references are lost after touchdown, a go-around should not be attempted.
The rollout should be continued with AP in ROLLOUT mode down to taxi speed.
FAILURES AND ASSOCIATED ACTIONS

GENERAL
If an aircraft or airport systems failure necessitates a reversion to a degraded approach category,
the approach may not commence (i.e. descent below 1000 FT AAL) or continue, if already below
1000 FT AAL, unless the reported RVR readings are at, or above, the minima for the degraded
approach category or visual reference has been established

ABNORMAL PROCEDURES
The required procedures following failures during CAT II or CAT III approaches are provided in the
Approved Flight Manual (AFM). These procedures have been established and approved during the
aircraft CAT Il / CAT III certification.
Operators may always refer to AFM for detailed information if they want to develop their own
abnormal procedures.
The abnormal procedures can be classified into two groups
 Failures leading to a downgrading of capability as displayed on FMA
 Failures that do not trigger a downgrading of capability but are signalled by other
effects .
The FCOM describes what should be the crew responses to failures in function to the height.

EQUIPMENT DETERIORATION ABOVE 1000FT:

 If an AIRCRAFT or AIRPORT systems failure necessitates a reversion to a degraded approach
category, the approach may not commence (ie descend below 1,000’aal), or continue, if

14
 already below 1,000’aal, unless the reported RVR readings are at, or above, the minima for
the degraded approach category.

CHAPTER 5

AIRFIELD REQUIREMENTS

INTRODUCTION
An operator shall not use an airfield for CAT II or CAT III operations unless it is approved for such
operations by the state in which the airfield is located.
The present chapter addresses the following subjects:
 runway characteristics,
 visual aids,
 non-Visual aids (ILS),
 RVR measurements,
 obstacle clearance area,
 ATC procedure,
 maintenance procedure.
The aim of this chapter is to present a summary view of the typical CAT II or CAT III airfield
requirements.

RUNWAY CHARACTERISTICS

RUNWAY LENGTH
There is no specific requirement concerning runway length for an aerodrome to be CAT II or III
approved. The runway length is only an operational limitation. The landing distance requirements
for autoland in the respective FCOM 2’s should be consulted.

RUNWAY WIDTH
The runway width should be normally not less than 45m.

RUNWAY SLOPE
For CAT II or CAT III, disregarding normal standards, it is recommended that for the first and the
last quarter of the length of the runway the slope does not exceed 0.8%.
During airworthiness certification, it must be demonstrated that the automatic landing system
works on a particular runway profile (see aircraft requirements).

OBJECTS ON RUNWAY STRIPS

It is recommended that for runways intended for use for CAT II or CAT III approaches, no fixed
object (other than frangible visual aids) are installed on a runway strip within 60m of the
centreline. During landing, no mobile objects are permitted in the same area.

15
TAXI-HOLDING POSITION
A taxi-holding position is established at each intersection of a taxiway and the runway. The
distance between the holding position and the centreline of the runway is not less than 90m
(greater if the runway elevation exceeds 700m).

VISUAL AIDS-RUNWAY MARKS

RUNWAY CENTRELINE MARKS

For CAT II or CAT III operations, the runway centreline marks, must have a width not less than
0.90m (or not less than 0.45m for CAT I).

TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKS

Touchdown zone marks, as shown in Figure 4.2, are required for all precision
approaches, unless the authority declares that they are unnecessary.
They are painted in the touchdown zone (the zone beginning at the threshold and
extending to a distance of 900m).

TAXIWAY MARKS
Taxiway marks are not a specific CAT II or CAT III requirement, but experience has shown that they
are an efficient means of guiding aircraft in low visibility conditions during the day.

16
TAXI-HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS

Either CAT II or CAT III is written on the surface when the area exceeds 60m width. CAT II or CAT III
signs are also placed on either edge of the taxiway at the holding-position and the sign CAT III
must be accompanied with flashing lights. These markings or signs are an efficient means to avoid
aircraft intruding into the obstacle-free zone or in the critical/sensitive area.

17
VISUAL AIDS-RUNWAY LIGHTS
Runway lights on runways intended for use
by CAT II or CAT III operations consist of
high intensity threshold lights, runway end
lights, runway touchdown zone lights,
runway edge lights, and runway centreline
lights. The basic pattern of runway lights is
shown in Figure 5.4. This paragraph also
includes requirements for taxiway lights as
shown in Figure 5.5.

RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS

Runway edge lights are placed along the full
length of the runway in two parallel rows equidistant from the centreline, with a distance of no
more than 3m to the runway edge. These lights are uniformly spaced at intervals of no more than
60m and may be omitted at the intersections. The lights are fixed lights showing variable white.

THRESHOLD LIGHTS
Threshold lights are placed in a row at right angles to the runway axis, outside the runway with a
distance of no more than 3m to the threshold.
The lights are fixed unidirectional lights showing green, uniformly spaced at intervals of no more
than 3m.

RUNWAY END LIGHTS

Runway end lights are placed in a row at right angles to the runway axis, outside the runway with
a distance of no more than 3m to the runway end.
The lights are fixed unidirectional lights showing red, with a minimum number of 6 lights.

RUNWAY CENTERLINE LIGHTS

Runway centreline lights are a specific requirement for CAT II or CAT III approaches, and from a
pilot perspective, perhaps the most important. They are located along the centreline of the
runway, with a longitudinal spacing of approximately 7.5m, 15m or 30m for CAT II and only 7.5m
or 15m for CAT Ill.

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These lights are fixed lights showing:
 Variable white from the threshold to the point 900m from the runway end.
 Alternate red and variable white from the point 900m to the point
 300m from the runway end (pairs of red lights followed by pairs of
variable white lights if the spacing is only 7.5m)
 Red from the point 300m to the runway end.

TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS

Runway touchdown zone lights are a specific requirement for CAT II or CAT III approaches. They
extend from the threshold for a longitudinal distance of 900m (full touchdown zone) but do not
extend beyond the mid-point if runway length is less than 1800m.
The pattern is formed by pairs of barrettes containing at least three lights. The lights inside each
barrette are fixed unidirectional lights showing variable white, spaced at an interval of no more
than 1.5m. Each barrette must be not less than 3m and no more than 4.5m in length. The
longitudinal spacing between pairs of barrettes is 60m or 30m.

TAXIWAY EDGE LIGHTS

Taxiway edge lights are not a specific CAT II or CAT III requirement, but provide efficient visual aid
during low-visibility operations. The lights are fixed lights showing blue.

TAXIWAY CENTERLINE LIGHTS

Taxiway centreline lights have to be installed on airfields intended for use by operations with an
RVR 400m or less). The lateral spacing between lights must not exceed 15m. The lights are fixed
lights showing green, but from the beginning of the taxiway to the perimeter of the ILS critical
area/sensitive area the lights are alternately showing green and yellow.

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STOP BARS
Stop bars are placed at each taxi-holding position when the runway is intended for use at an RVR
less than 400m and are specially required for all CAT III approaches. The lights of the stop bars
show red and are spaced at intervals of 3m. These stop bars are an efficient means to avoid
aircraft intrusion into the obstacle-free zone (OFZ) or into the critical/sensitive area during
approaches in very low visibility conditions.

VISUAL AIDS-APPROACH LIGHT SYSTEM

The approach light system is mandatory for CAT II operations, and only optional for CAT III
operations. It consists of a row of lights on the extended centreline of the runway, extending over
a distance of 300m from the threshold (over 900m for CAT I).
In addition, the system has two side rows of lights, extending 270m from the threshold, and two
crossbars, one at 150m and one at 300m from the threshold as shown.
It is specified by the ECAC that sequenced strobe lighting is considered to be incompatible with
CAT II and III operations. When installed for other operation, it should be switched off when CAT II
or CAT III approaches are in progress.

EXTENDED CENTERLINE LIGHTS

The lights forming the centreline are placed at longitudinal intervals of 30m, with the first one
located 30m from the threshold.
These lights consist of barrettes showing variable white. Each barrette is at least 4m in length.
When a barrette is composed of point sources, the lights are uniformly spaced at intervals of no
more than 1.5m.

SIDE ROW LIGHTS

The lights forming the side rows are placed on each side of the centreline, at a longitudinal spacing
equal to that of the extended centreline lights (30m), with the first ones located 30m from the
threshold. The lateral spacing (or gauge) between the lights is generally 18m.
These lights consist of barrettes showing red. The length of a side row barrette and the
longitudinal spacing of its lights shall be equal to those of the touchdown lights barrettes.

CROSSBAR LIGHTS
The crossbar provided at 150m from the threshold fills in the gap between the centreline and the
side row lights. The crossbar provided at 300m is extended on both sides of the centreline lights to
a distance of 15m from the centreline. The lights forming the two crossbars are fixed lights
showing variable white.

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OBSTACLE CLEARANCE AREA

INTRODUCTION
Due to the very low visibility in CAT II and CAT III operations, each airfield must meet stringent
criteria concerning obstacle clearance to avoid any aircraft on approach, landing or go-around
touching obstacles on the ground. The basis of those criteria are fully included in ICAO Annex 14
and PANS-OPS Doc 8168 and in other national documents. In CAT II and III operations, two
important concepts are often mentioned in the regulations.
 the Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ),
 the Obstacle Clearance Height (OCH).
DEFINITIONS
Provided below are the definitions of the OCH and OFZ as defined in ICAO.
OCA/OCH: The lowest altitude (OCA), or alternatively the lowest height above the elevation of the
relevant runway threshold or above the aerodrome elevation as applicable (OCH), used in
establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle clearance criteria.

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Sometimes, the term OCL (obstacle clearance limit) can be found in the documentation, but this
term is being phased out.
When an operator establishes his operating aerodrome minima, he must take into account the
OCH only for CAT II. The minimum DH for CAT II is always equal to or higher than any OCH
mentioned in the aerodrome chart. This OCH is a function of the category of aircraft (A to E). All CX
aircraft are currently category D.

DESCRIPTION
Nowadays, all CAT II and III approaches are based on ILS facilities. The ILS installation must
conform to the appropriate specifications contained in ICAO Annex 10, Volume 1, Part 1, Chapters
2 and 3, and be designed and operated in accordance with the guidance material contained in
attachments C to part 1 of Annex 10.
There are three categories of ILS, providing guidance down to a height higher or equal to
 60m(200ft) for CAT I,
 15m(50ft) for CAT II,
 runway surface and along the runway for CAT III.
Generally, the authority requires a CAT II ILS facility for the performance of CAT II approaches, and
a CAT Ill ILS facility for the performance of CAT III approaches. However, it is acceptable to use a
category II ILS facility for the performance of CAT III approaches with the highest minima (for
example CAT III A or CAT III with DH not less than 50ft). Generally, a special agreement from the
authority should be obtained. Mainly, the authority will take account of the continuity of service
objective and the integrity objective of those installations.

ILS PROTECTION
In CAT II and III approaches, the ILS beams must be protected from unacceptable disturbance. For
this purpose, two kinds of protection area are defined
 the critical area,
 the sensitive area.

ILS CRITICAL AREA:

An area of defined dimensions about the localizer and glide path antennas where vehicles,
including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS operations. The critical area is protected because the
presence of vehicles and/or aircraft inside the boundaries will cause unacceptable disturbance to
the ILS signal-in-space.

ILS SENSITIVE AREA:

An area extending beyond the critical area where the parking and/or movement of vehicles,
including aircraft, is controlled to prevent the possibility of unacceptable interference to the ILS
signal during ILS operations. The sensitive area is protected to provide protection against
interference caused by large moving objects outside the critical area but still normally within the
airfield boundary.
The ILS beam is also protected by longitudinal separation between aircraft on landing or take-off.
ILS protection is mandatory when low visibility procedures are in force.

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CHAPTER 7

THE CREW

QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE

Refer to FOP OPS MAN PART A:
4.1.5 Restrictions on Commander/PIC inexperienced on type
5.2.2.1 Simulator Recurrent Training and Proficiency Check
5.2.4.3/4/5 Appointment as Junior F/O, F/O S F/O and Captain

CONCLUSION

LWMO is a valuable part of our operation and you should ensure that you are familiar with the
concepts as you will no doubt have to apply this knowledge in the future. You will receive more
in-depth training, but you should be aware of the following authorizations and approvals:
 Cathay Pacific is approved under the HK AOC for LWMO operations to CAT 3B no DH
o Details of authorizations are contained in AU/006/2006
 Company approval requirements are dictated by the CAD 359 Low Weather Minima
Operations Manual
 Additions or modifications to the requirements of this manual are requested by Cathay
Pacific and granted as company specific approvals
 Required items for approval are:
o Accepted LWMO pilot training program
o Detailed LWMO procedures and limitations in each aircrafts Flight Manual
o Demonstrate the training program, and operating procedures meet established
safety levels
o Produce evidence operational procedures have been used satisfactorily to CAT 1
minimum
o An approved Aircraft Maintenance Program
o An ongoing Aircraft Auto land monitoring program

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