Maglev

Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation)

is a system of train transportation that
uses two sets of electromagnets: one set
to repel and push the train up off the track,
and another set to move the elevated train
ahead, taking advantage of the lack of
friction. Such trains rise approximately 10
centimetres (4 in) off the track.[1][2] There
are both high-speed, intercity maglev
systems (over 400 kilometres per hour or
250 miles per hour), and low-speed, urban
maglev systems (80–200 kilometres per
hour or 50–124 miles per hour) under
development and being built. The
Shanghai maglev train is the only maglev
train in commercial operation that can be
considered as high speed.[3]

L0 Series on SCMaglev test track in

Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan

Transrapid 09 at the Emsland test

facility in Lower Saxony, Germany
 A full trip on the Shanghai Transrapid
maglev train

Example of low-speed urban maglev

system, Linimo

With maglev technology, the train travels

along a guideway of electromagnets which
control the train's stability and speed.
While the propulsion and levitation require
no moving parts, the bogies can move in
relation to the main body of the vehicle
and some technologies require support by
retractable wheels at low speeds under
150 kilometres per hour (93 mph). This
compares with electric multiple units that
may have several dozen parts per bogie.
Maglev trains can therefore in some cases
be quieter and smoother than
conventional trains and have the potential
for much higher speeds.[4]

Maglev vehicles have set several speed

records, and maglev trains can accelerate
and decelerate much faster than
conventional trains; the only practical
limitation is the safety and comfort of the
passengers, although wind resistance at
very high speeds can cause running costs
that are four to five times that of
conventional high-speed rail (such as the
Tokaido Shinkansen).[5] The power needed
for levitation is typically not a large
percentage of the overall energy
consumption of a high-speed maglev
system.[6] Overcoming drag, which makes
all open-air land transport more energy
intensive at higher speeds, takes the most
energy. Vactrain technology has been
proposed as a means to overcome this
limitation. Maglev systems have been
much more expensive to construct than
conventional train systems, although the
simpler construction of maglev vehicles
makes them cheaper to manufacture and
maintain.
The Shanghai maglev train, also known as
the Shanghai Transrapid, has a top speed
of 430 kilometres per hour (270 mph). The
line is the fastest operational high-speed
maglev train, connecting Shanghai Pudong
International Airport and the outskirts of
central Pudong, Shanghai. It covers a
distance of 30.5 kilometres (19 mi) in just
over 8 minutes. The launch in 2002
generated wide public interest and media
attention in maglev for the first time.[7]

Despite over a century of research and

development, there are only six operational
maglev trains today — three in China, two
in South Korea, and one in Japan.[8][3]
Maglev can be hard to economically justify
for certain locations, however it has
notable benefits over conventional railway
systems, which includes lower operating
and maintenance costs (with zero rolling
friction its parts do not wear out quickly
and hence less need to replace parts
often), significantly lower odds of
derailment (due to its design), an
extremely quiet and smooth ride for
passengers, little to no air pollution, and
the railcars can be built wider and make it
more comfortable and spacious for
passengers. And also because it can travel
up higher ascending grades (up to 10
percent), compared to conventional trains
(up to 4 percent or less), maglev trains can
also reduce the need to create new
tunnels or to level the landscape to build
its tracks.[9][10]

Development
In the late 1940s, the British electrical
engineer Eric Laithwaite, a professor at
Imperial College London, developed the
first full-size working model of the linear
induction motor. He became professor of
heavy electrical engineering at Imperial
College in 1964, where he continued his
successful development of the linear
motor.[11] Since linear motors do not
require physical contact between the
vehicle and guideway, they became a
common fixture on advanced
transportation systems in the 1960s and
1970s. Laithwaite joined one such project,
the Tracked Hovercraft RTV-31, based near
Cambridge, UK, although the project was
cancelled in 1973.[12]

The linear motor was naturally suited to

use with maglev systems as well. In the
early 1970s, Laithwaite discovered a new
arrangement of magnets, the magnetic
river, that allowed a single linear motor to
produce both lift and forward thrust,
allowing a maglev system to be built with
a single set of magnets. Working at the
British Rail Research Division in Derby,
along with teams at several civil
engineering firms, the "transverse-flux"
system was developed into a working
system.

The first commercial maglev people mover

was simply called "MAGLEV" and officially
opened in 1984 near Birmingham,
England. It operated on an elevated 600
metres (2,000 ft) section of monorail track
between Birmingham Airport and
Birmingham International railway station,
running at speeds up to 42 kilometres per
hour (26 mph). The system was closed in
1995 due to reliability problems.[13]

History

First maglev patent

High-speed transportation patents were

granted to various inventors throughout
the world.[14] The first relevant patent, U.S.
Patent 714,851 (https://patents.google.co
m/patent/US714851) (2 December 1902),
issued to Albert C. Albertson, used
magnetic levitation to take part of the
weight off of the wheels while using
conventional propulsion.
Early United States patents for a linear
motor propelled train were awarded to
German inventor Alfred Zehden. The
inventor was awarded U.S. Patent 782,312
(https://patents.google.com/patent/US78
2312) (14 February 1905) and U.S. Patent
RE12700 (https://patents.google.com/pat
ent/USRE12700) (21 August 1907).[note 1]
In 1907, another early electromagnetic
transportation system was developed by F.
S. Smith.[15] In 1908, Cleveland mayor Tom
L. Johnson filed a patent for a wheel-less
"high-speed railway" levitated by an
induced magnetic field.[16] Jokingly known
as "Greased Lightning," the suspended car
operated on a 90-foot test track in
Johnson's basement "absolutely
noiseless[ly] and without the least
vibration."[17] A series of German patents
for magnetic levitation trains propelled by
linear motors were awarded to Hermann
Kemper between 1937 and 1941.[note 2] An
early maglev train was described in U.S.
Patent 3,158,765 (https://patents.google.c
om/patent/US3158765) , "Magnetic
system of transportation", by G. R.
Polgreen on 25 August 1959. The first use
of "maglev" in a United States patent was
in "Magnetic levitation guidance
system"[18] by Canadian Patents and
Development Limited.
New York, United States, 1912

In 1912 French-American inventor Émile

Bachelet demonstrated a model train with
electromagnetic levitation and propulsion
in Mount Vernon, New York.[19] Bachelet's
first related patent, U.S. Patent 1,020,942
(https://patents.google.com/patent/US10
20942) was granted in 1912. The
electromagnetic propulsion was by
attraction of iron in the train by direct
current solenoids spaced along the track.
The electromagnetic levitation was due to
repulsion of the aluminum base plate of
the train by the pulsating current
electromagnets under the track. The
pulses were generated by Bachelet's own
Synchronizing-interrupter U.S. Patent
986,039 (https://patents.google.com/pate
nt/US986039) supplied with 220 VAC. As
the train moved it switched power to the
section of track that it was on. Bachelet
went on to demonstrate his model in
London, England in 1914, which resulted in
the registration of Bachelet Levitated
Railway Syndicate Limited July 9 in
London, just weeks before the start of
WWI.[20]

Bachelet's second related patent, U.S.

Patent 1,020,943 (https://patents.google.c
om/patent/US1020943) granted the
same day as the first, had the levitation
electromagnets in the train and the track
was aluminum plate. In the patent he
stated that this was a much cheaper
construction, but he did not demonstrate
it.

New York, United States, 1968

In 1959, while delayed in traffic on the

Throgs Neck Bridge, James Powell, a
researcher at Brookhaven National
Laboratory (BNL), thought of using
magnetically levitated transportation.[21]
Powell and BNL colleague Gordon Danby
worked out a maglev concept using static
magnets mounted on a moving vehicle to
induce electrodynamic lifting and
stabilizing forces in specially shaped
loops, such as figure-of-8 coils on a
guideway.[22] These were patented in
1968–1969.[23]

Japan, 1969–present

Japan operates two independently

developed maglev trains. One is HSST
(and its descendant, the Linimo line) by
Japan Airlines and the other, which is
more well known, is SCMaglev by the
Central Japan Railway Company.
The development of the latter started in
1969. The first successful SCMaglev run
was made on a short track at the
Japanese National Railways' (JNR's)
Railway Technical Research Institute in
1972.[24] Maglev trains on the Miyazaki
test track (a later, 7 km long test track)
regularly hit 517 kilometres per hour
(321 mph) by 1979. After an accident
which destroyed the train, a new design
was selected. In Okazaki, Japan (1987),
the SCMaglev was used for test rides at
the Okazaki exhibition. Tests in Miyazaki
continued throughout the 1980s, before
transferring to a far longer test track, 20
kilometres (12 mi) long, in Yamanashi in
1997. The track has since been extended
to almost 43 kilometres (27 mi). The
current 603 kilometres per hour (375 mph)
world speed record for crewed trains was
set there in 2015.

Development of HSST started in 1974. In

Tsukuba, Japan (1985), the HSST-03
(Linimo) became popular at the Tsukuba
World Exposition, in spite of its low 30
kilometres per hour (19 mph) top speed. In
Saitama, Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was
revealed at the Saitama exhibition in
Kumagaya. Its fastest recorded speed was
300 kilometres per hour (190 mph).[25]
Construction of a new high-speed maglev
line, the Chuo Shinkansen, started in 2014.
It is being built by extending the SCMaglev
test track in Yamanashi in both directions.
The completion date is currently unknown,
with the most recent estimate of 2027 no
longer possible following a local
governmental rejection of a construction
permit.[26]

Hamburg, Germany, 1979

Transrapid 05 was the first maglev train

with longstator propulsion licensed for
passenger transportation. In 1979, a 908
metres (2,979 ft) track was opened in
Hamburg for the first International
Transportation Exhibition (IVA 79). Interest
was sufficient that operations were
extended three months after the exhibition
finished, having carried more than 50,000
passengers. It was reassembled in Kassel
in 1980.

Ramenskoye, Moscow, USSR, 1979

Experimental car TP-05 (ТП-05) in

Ramenskoye built in 1986

In 1979 the USSR town of Ramenskoye

(Moscow oblast) built an experimental test
site for running experiments with cars on
magnetic suspension. The test site
consisted of a 60-metre ramp which was
later extended to 980 metres.[27] From the
late 1970s to the 1980s five prototypes of
cars were built that received designations
from TP-01 (ТП-01) to TP-05 (ТП-05).[28]
The early cars were supposed to reach the
speed up to 100 kilometres per hour
(62 mph).

The construction of a maglev track using

the technology from Ramenskoye started
in Armenian SSR in 1987[29] and was
planned to be completed in 1991. The
track was supposed to connect the cities
of Yerevan and Sevan via the city of
Abovyan.[30] The original design speed
was 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph)
which was later lowered to 180 kilometres
per hour (110 mph).[31] However, the
Spitak earthquake in 1988 and the First
Nagorno-Karabakh War caused the project
to freeze. In the end the overpass was only
partially constructed.[32]

In the early 1990s, the maglev theme was

continued by the Engineering Research
Center "TEMP" (ИНЦ "ТЭМП")[33] this time
by the order from the Moscow
government. The project was named V250
(В250). The idea was to build a high-speed
maglev train to connect Moscow to the
Sheremetyevo airport. The train would
consist of 64-seater cars and run at
speeds up to 250 kilometres per hour
(160 mph).[28] In 1993, due to the financial
crisis, the project was abandoned.
However, from 1999 the "TEMP" research
center had been participating as a co-
developer in the creation of the linear
motors for the Moscow Monorail system.

Birmingham, United Kingdom, 1984–

1995
 The Birmingham International Maglev
shuttle

The world's first commercial maglev

system was a low-speed maglev shuttle
that ran between the airport terminal of
Birmingham International Airport and the
nearby Birmingham International railway
station between 1984 and 1995.[34] Its
track length was 600 metres (2,000 ft), and
trains levitated at an altitude of 15
millimetres [0.59 in], levitated by
electromagnets, and propelled with linear
induction motors.[35] It operated for 11
years and was initially very popular with
passengers,[36] but obsolescence
problems with the electronic systems
made it progressively unreliable[37] as
years passed, leading to its closure in
1995. One of the original cars is now on
display at Railworld in Peterborough,
together with the RTV31 hover train
vehicle. Another is on display at the
National Railway Museum in York.

Several favourable conditions existed

when the link was built:

The British Rail Research vehicle was 3

tonnes and extension to the 8-tonne
vehicle was easy.
Electrical power was available.
The airport and rail buildings were
suitable for terminal platforms.
Only one crossing over a public road
was required and no steep gradients
were involved.
Land was owned by the railway or
airport.
Local industries and councils were
supportive.
Some government finance was provided
and because of sharing work, the cost
per organization was low.
After the system closed in 1995, the
original guideway lay dormant[38] until
2003, when a replacement cable-hauled
system, the AirRail Link Cable Liner people
mover, was opened.[39][40]

Emsland, Germany, 1984–2012

Transrapid at the Emsland test facility

Transrapid, a German maglev company,

had a test track in Emsland with a total
length of 31.5 kilometres (19.6 mi). The
single-track line ran between Dörpen and
Lathen with turning loops at each end. The
trains regularly ran at up to 420 kilometres
per hour (260 mph). Paying passengers
were carried as part of the testing
process. The construction of the test
facility began in 1980 and finished in 1984.

In 2006, the Lathen maglev train accident

occurred, killing 23 people. It was found to
have been caused by human error in
implementing safety checks. From 2006
no passengers were carried. At the end of
2011 the operation licence expired and
was not renewed, and in early 2012
demolition permission was given for its
facilities, including the track and
factory.[41]
In March 2021 it was reported the CRRC
was investigating reviving the Emsland
test track.[42] In May 2019 CRRC had
unveiled its 'CRRC 600' prototype which is
designed to reach 600 kilometres per hour
(370 mph).

Vancouver, Canada and Hamburg,

Germany, 1986–88

HSST-03 at Okazaki Minami Park

In Vancouver, Canada, the HSST-03 by

HSST Development Corporation (Japan
Airlines and Sumitomo Corporation) was
exhibited at Expo 86,[43] and ran on a 400-
metre (0.25 mi) test track that provided
guests with a ride in a single car along a
short section of track at the
fairgrounds.[44] It was removed after the
fair. It was shown at the Aoi Expo in 1987
and is now on static display at Okazaki
Minami Park.

Berlin, Germany, 1984–1992

In West Berlin, the M-Bahn was built in

1984. It was a driverless maglev system
with a 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) track
connecting three stations. Testing with
passenger traffic started in August 1989,
and regular operation started in July 1991.
Although the line largely followed a new
elevated alignment, it terminated at
Gleisdreieck U-Bahn station, where it took
over an unused platform for a line that
formerly ran to East Berlin. After the fall of
the Berlin Wall, plans were set in motion to
reconnect this line (today's U2).
Deconstruction of the M-Bahn line began
only two months after regular service
began and was completed during February
1992.

South Korea, 1993–present

 South Korea's Incheon Airport Maglev,
the world's fourth commercially
operating maglev[45]

In 1993, South Korea completed the

development of its own maglev train,
shown off at the Taejŏn Expo '93, which
was developed further into a full-fledged
maglev capable of travelling up to 110
kilometres per hour (68 mph) in 2006. This
final model was incorporated in the
Incheon Airport Maglev which opened on 3
February 2016, making South Korea the
world's fourth country to operate its own
self-developed maglev after the United
Kingdom's Birmingham International
Airport,[46] Germany's Berlin M-Bahn,[47]
and Japan's Linimo.[48] It links Incheon
International Airport to the Yongyu Station
and Leisure Complex on Yeongjong
island.[49] It offers a transfer to the Seoul
Metropolitan Subway at AREX's Incheon
International Airport Station and is offered
free of charge to anyone to ride, operating
between 9 am and 6 pm with 15-minute
intervals.[50]

The maglev system was co-developed by

the South Korea Institute of Machinery and
Materials (KIMM) and Hyundai
Rotem.[51][52][53] It is 6.1 kilometres
(3.8 mi) long, with six stations and a 110
kilometres per hour (68 mph) operating
speed.[54]

Two more stages are planned of 9.7

kilometres (6 mi) and 37.4 kilometres
(23.2 mi). Once completed it will become a
circular line.

Germany/China, 2010–present

Transport System Bögl (TSB) is a

driverless maglev system developed by
the German construction company Max
Bögl since 2010. Its primary intended use
is for short to medium distances (up to
30 km) and speeds up to 150 km/h for
uses such as airport shuttles. The
company has been doing test runs on an
820-meter-long test track at their
headquarters in Sengenthal, Upper
Palatinate, Germany, since 2012 clocking
over 100,000 tests covering a distance of
over 65,000 km as of 2018.

In 2018 Max Bögl signed a joint venture

with the Chinese company Chengdu
Xinzhu Road & Bridge Machinery Co. with
the Chinese partner given exclusive rights
of production and marketing for the
system in China. The joint venture
constructed a 3.5 km (2.2 mi)
demonstration line near Chengdu, China,
and two vehicles were airlifted there in
June, 2020.[55] In April 2021 a vehicle on
the Chinese test track hit a top speed of
169 km/h (105 mph).[56]

China, 2000-present

According to the International Maglev

Board there are at least four maglev
research programmes underway in China
at the following institutions: Southwest
Jiaotong University (Chengdu), Tongji
University (Shanghai), CRRC Tangshan-
Changchun Railway Vehicle Co. and
Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group.[57] The
latest high-speed prototype, unveiled in
July 2021, was manufactured by CRRC
Qingdao Sifang.[58]

Low-to-medium speed

Development of the low-to-medium speed

systems, that is, 100–200 km/h (62–
124 mph),[59] by the CRRC has led to
opening of operational lines such as the
Changsha Maglev Express in 2016 and the
Line S1 in Beijing in 2017. In April 2020 a
new model capable of 160 km/h (99 mph)
and compatible with the Changsha line
completed testing. The vehicle, under
development since 2018, has a 30 percent
increase in traction efficiency and a 60
percent increase in speed over the stock in
use on the line since.[60] The vehicles
entered service in July 2021 with a top
speed of 140 km/h (87 mph).[61] CRRC
Zhuzhou Locomotive said in April 2020 it
is developing a model capable of
200 km/h (120 mph).[60]

High speed

Maglev on the Tongji University test

track
There are currently two competing efforts
into high-speed maglev systems, i.e., 300–
620 km/h (190–390 mph).

The first is based on the Transrapid

technology used in the Shanghai maglev
train and is developed by the CRRC
under license from Thyssen-Krupp.[62]
In 2006 the 500 km/h (310 mph)
CM1 Dolphin prototype was
unveiled[63] and began testing on a
new 1.5-kilometre (0.93 mi) test
track at Tongji University, northwest
of Shanghai.
A prototype vehicle of the 600 km/h
(370 mph) CRRC 600 was
developed in 2019 and tested from
June 2020.[64]
In March 2021 a 300 km/h
(190 mph) model began trials.[65]
In July 2021, the CRRC 600 maglev,
planned to travel at up to 600 km/h
(370 mph), was unveiled in
Qingdao.[66] It was reported to be
the world's fastest ground
vehicle.[67]
A high-speed test track is under
development in China and also, in
April 2021, there was consideration
given to re-opening the Emsland
test facility in Germany.[62]
 A second, incompatible high-speed
prototype was unveiled in January 2021.
Developed at Southwest Jiaotong
University in Chengdu, the design uses
high-temperature superconducting
magnets, is designed for 620 km/h
(390 mph) and was demonstrated on a
165-metre (180 yd) test track.[68]

Technology
In the public imagination, "maglev" often
evokes the concept of an elevated
monorail track with a linear motor. Maglev
systems may be monorail or dual rail—the
SCMaglev MLX01 for instance uses a
trench-like track—and not all monorail
trains are maglevs. Some railway transport
systems incorporate linear motors but use
electromagnetism only for propulsion,
without levitating the vehicle. Such trains
have wheels and are not maglevs.[note 3]
Maglev tracks, monorail or not, can also be
constructed at grade or underground in
tunnels. Conversely, non-maglev tracks,
monorail or not, can be elevated or
underground too. Some maglev trains do
incorporate wheels and function like linear
motor-propelled wheeled vehicles at
slower speeds but levitate at higher
speeds. This is typically the case with
electrodynamic suspension maglev trains.
Aerodynamic factors may also play a role
in the levitation of such trains.

MLX01 Maglev train Superconducting

magnet bogie

The two main types of maglev technology

are:

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS),

electronically controlled electromagnets
in the train attract it to a magnetically
conductive (usually steel) track.
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses
superconducting electromagnets or
 strong permanent magnets that create a
magnetic field, which induces currents
in nearby metallic conductors when
there is relative movement, which
pushes and pulls the train towards the
designed levitation position on the guide
way.

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS)

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is

used to levitate the Transrapid on the
track, so that the train can be faster
than wheeled mass transit
systems.[69][70]

In electromagnetic suspension (EMS)

systems, the train levitates by attraction to
a ferromagnetic (usually steel) rail while
electromagnets, attached to the train, are
oriented toward the rail from below. The
system is typically arranged on a series of
C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of
the arm attached to the vehicle, and the
lower inside edge containing the magnets.
The rail is situated inside the C, between
the upper and lower edges.

Magnetic attraction varies inversely with

the square of distance, so minor changes
in distance between the magnets and the
rail produce greatly varying forces. These
changes in force are dynamically unstable
—a slight divergence from the optimum
position tends to grow, requiring
sophisticated feedback systems to
maintain a constant distance from the
track, (approximately 15 millimetres
[0.59 in]).[71][72]

The major advantage to suspended

maglev systems is that they work at all
speeds, unlike electrodynamic systems,
which only work at a minimum speed of
about 30 kilometres per hour (19 mph).
This eliminates the need for a separate
low-speed suspension system, and can
simplify track layout. On the downside, the
dynamic instability demands fine track
tolerances, which can offset this
advantage. Eric Laithwaite was concerned
that to meet required tolerances, the gap
between magnets and rail would have to
be increased to the point where the
magnets would be unreasonably large.[73]
In practice, this problem was addressed
through improved feedback systems,
which support the required tolerances. Air
gap and energy efficiency can be improved
by using the socalled "Hybrid
Electromagnetic Suspension (H-EMS)",
where the main levitation force is
generated by permanent magnets, while
the electromagnet controls the air gap,[74]
what is called electropermanent magnets.
Ideally it would take negligible power to
stabilize the suspension and in practice
the power requirement is less than it
would be if the entire suspension force
were provided by electromagnets alone.[75]

Electrodynamic suspension (EDS)

The Japanese SCMaglev's EDS

suspension is powered by the
magnetic fields induced either side of
the vehicle by the passage of the
vehicle's superconducting magnets.

EDS maglev propulsion via propulsion

coils

In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both

the guideway and the train exert a
magnetic field, and the train is levitated by
the repulsive and attractive force between
these magnetic fields.[76] In some
configurations, the train can be levitated
only by repulsive force. In the early stages
of maglev development at the Miyazaki
test track, a purely repulsive system was
used instead of the later repulsive and
attractive EDS system.[77] The magnetic
field is produced either by
superconducting magnets (as in JR–
Maglev) or by an array of permanent
magnets (as in Inductrack). The repulsive
and attractive force in the track is created
by an induced magnetic field in wires or
other conducting strips in the track.
A major advantage of EDS maglev
systems is that they are dynamically
stable—changes in distance between the
track and the magnets creates strong
forces to return the system to its original
position.[73] In addition, the attractive force
varies in the opposite manner, providing
the same adjustment effects. No active
feedback control is needed.

However, at slow speeds, the current

induced in these coils and the resultant
magnetic flux is not large enough to
levitate the train. For this reason, the train
must have wheels or some other form of
landing gear to support the train until it
reaches take-off speed. Since a train may
stop at any location, due to equipment
problems for instance, the entire track
must be able to support both low- and
high-speed operation.

Another downside is that the EDS system

naturally creates a field in the track in front
and to the rear of the lift magnets, which
acts against the magnets and creates
magnetic drag. This is generally only a
concern at low speeds, and is one of the
reasons why JR abandoned a purely
repulsive system and adopted the sidewall
levitation system.[77] At higher speeds
other modes of drag dominate.[73]
The drag force can be used to the
electrodynamic system's advantage,
however, as it creates a varying force in
the rails that can be used as a reactionary
system to drive the train, without the need
for a separate reaction plate, as in most
linear motor systems. Laithwaite led
development of such "traverse-flux"
systems at his Imperial College
laboratory.[73] Alternatively, propulsion
coils on the guideway are used to exert a
force on the magnets in the train and
make the train move forward. The
propulsion coils that exert a force on the
train are effectively a linear motor: an
alternating current through the coils
generates a continuously varying magnetic
field that moves forward along the track.
The frequency of the alternating current is
synchronized to match the speed of the
train. The offset between the field exerted
by magnets on the train and the applied
field creates a force moving the train
forward.

Tracks

The term "maglev" refers not only to the

vehicles, but to the railway system as well,
specifically designed for magnetic
levitation and propulsion. All operational
implementations of maglev technology
make minimal use of wheeled train
technology and are not compatible with
conventional rail tracks. Because they
cannot share existing infrastructure,
maglev systems must be designed as
standalone systems. The SPM maglev
system is inter-operable with steel rail
tracks and would permit maglev vehicles
and conventional trains to operate on the
same tracks.[73]MAN in Germany also
designed a maglev system that worked
with conventional rails, but it was never
fully developed.

Evaluation
Each implementation of the magnetic
levitation principle for train-type travel
involves advantages and disadvantages.
 Technology Pros Cons

The separation between the vehicle

and the guideway must be
Magnetic fields inside and outside the
constantly monitored and corrected
vehicle are less than EDS; proven,
EMS[78][79] due to the unstable nature of
commercially available technology;
(electromagnetic electromagnetic attraction; the
high speeds (500 kilometres per hour
suspension) system's inherent instability and the
or 310 miles per hour); no wheels or
required constant corrections by
secondary propulsion system needed.
outside systems may induce
vibration.

Strong magnetic fields on the train

Onboard magnets and large margin
would make the train unsafe for
between rail and train enable highest-
passengers with pacemakers or
recorded speeds (603 kilometres per
magnetic data storage media such
EDS[80][81] hour or 375 miles per hour) and heavy
as hard drives and credit cards,
(electrodynamic load capacity; demonstrated
necessitating the use of magnetic
suspension) successful operations using high-
shielding; limitations on guideway
temperature superconductors in its
inductivity limit maximum speed;
onboard magnets, cooled with
vehicle must be wheeled for travel at
inexpensive liquid nitrogen.
low speeds.

Failsafe suspension—no power

required to activate magnets; Magnetic
field is localized below the car; can Requires either wheels or track
Inductrack
generate enough force at low speeds segments that move for when the
system[82][83]
(around 5 kilometres per hour or 3.1 vehicle is stopped. Under
(permanent
miles per hour) for levitation; given development as of 2008; no
magnet passive
power failure cars stop safely; Halbach commercial version or full-scale
suspension)
arrays of permanent magnets may prototype.
prove more cost-effective than
electromagnets.
Neither Inductrack nor the
Superconducting EDS are able to levitate
vehicles at a standstill, although
Inductrack provides levitation at much
lower speed; wheels are required for these
systems. EMS systems are wheel-free.

The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST

(Linimo), and Korean Rotem EMS maglevs
levitate at a standstill, with electricity
extracted from guideway using power rails
for the latter two, and wirelessly for
Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on
the move, the Transrapid is still able to
generate levitation down to 10 kilometres
per hour (6.2 mph) speed, using the power
from onboard batteries. This is not the
case with the HSST and Rotem systems.

Propulsion

EMS systems such as HSST/Linimo can

provide both levitation and propulsion
using an onboard linear motor. But EDS
systems and some EMS systems such as
Transrapid levitate but do not propel. Such
systems need some other technology for
propulsion. A linear motor (propulsion
coils) mounted in the track is one solution.
Over long distances coil costs could be
prohibitive.

Stability
Earnshaw's theorem shows that no
combination of static magnets can be in a
stable equilibrium.[84] Therefore a dynamic
(time varying) magnetic field is required to
achieve stabilization. EMS systems rely on
active electronic stabilization that
constantly measures the bearing distance
and adjusts the electromagnet current
accordingly. EDS systems rely on changing
magnetic fields to create currents, which
can give passive stability.

Because maglev vehicles essentially fly,

stabilisation of pitch, roll and yaw is
required. In addition to rotation, surge
(forward and backward motions), sway
(sideways motion) or heave (up and down
motions) can be problematic.

Superconducting magnets on a train

above a track made out of a permanent
magnet lock the train into its lateral
position. It can move linearly along the
track, but not off the track. This is due to
the Meissner effect and flux pinning.

Guidance system

Some systems use Null Current systems

(also sometimes called Null Flux
systems).[76][85] These use a coil that is
wound so that it enters two opposing,
alternating fields, so that the average flux
in the loop is zero. When the vehicle is in
the straight ahead position, no current
flows, but any moves off-line create flux
that generates a field that naturally
pushes/pulls it back into line.

Proposed technology enhancements

Evacuated tubes

Some systems (notably the Swissmetro

system and the Hyperloop) propose the
use of vactrains—maglev train technology
used in evacuated (airless) tubes, which
removes air drag. This has the potential to
increase speed and efficiency greatly, as
most of the energy for conventional
maglev trains is lost to aerodynamic
drag.[86]

One potential risk for passengers of trains

operating in evacuated tubes is that they
could be exposed to the risk of cabin
depressurization unless tunnel safety
monitoring systems can repressurize the
tube in the event of a train malfunction or
accident though since trains are likely to
operate at or near the Earth's surface,
emergency restoration of ambient
pressure should be straightforward. The
RAND Corporation has depicted a vacuum
tube train that could, in theory, cross the
Atlantic or the USA in around 21
minutes.[87]

Rail-maglev hybrid

The Polish startup Nevomo (previously

Hyper Poland) is developing a system for
modifying existing railway tracks into a
maglev system, on which conventional
wheel-rail trains, as well maglev vehicles
can travel.[88] Vehicles on this so-called
‘magrail’ system will be able to reach
speeds of up to 300 kilometres per hour
(190 mph) at significantly lower
infrastructure costs than stand-alone
maglev lines. In 2023 Nevomo conducted
the first MagRail tests on Europe's longest
test track for passive magnetic levitation,
which the company had previously built in
Poland.[89]

Energy use

Energy for maglev trains is used to

accelerate the train. Energy may be
regained when the train slows down via
regenerative braking. It also levitates and
stabilises the train's movement. Most of
the energy is needed to overcome air drag.
Some energy is used for air conditioning,
heating, lighting and other miscellany.
At low speeds the percentage of power
used for levitation can be significant,
consuming up to 15% more power than a
subway or light rail service.[90] For short
distances the energy used for acceleration
might be considerable.

The force used to overcome air drag

increases with the square of the velocity
and hence dominates at high speed. The
energy needed per unit distance increases
by the square of the velocity and the time
decreases linearly. However power
increases by the cube of the velocity. For
example, 2.37 times as much power is
needed to travel at 400 kilometres per
hour (250 mph) than 300 kilometres per
hour (190 mph), while drag increases by
1.77 times the original force.[91]

Aircraft take advantage of lower air

pressure and lower temperatures by
cruising at altitude to reduce energy
consumption but unlike trains need to
carry fuel on board. This has led to the
suggestion of conveying maglev vehicles
through partially evacuated tubes.

High-speed maglev comparison with

conventional high-speed trains
Maglev transport is non-contact and
electric powered. It relies less or not at all
on the wheels, bearings and axles
common to wheeled rail systems.[92]

Speed: Maglev allows higher top speeds

than conventional rail. While
experimental wheel-based high-speed
trains have demonstrated similar
speeds, conventional trains will suffer
from friction between wheels and track
and thus elevating the maintenance cost
if operating at such speed, unlike
levitated maglev trains.
Maintenance: Maglev trains currently in
operation have demonstrated the need
for minimal guideway maintenance.
Vehicle maintenance is also minimal
(based on hours of operation, rather
than on speed or distance traveled).
Traditional rail is subject to mechanical
wear and tear that increases rapidly with
speed, also increasing maintenance.[92]
For example: the wearing down of
brakes and overhead wire wear have
caused problems for the Fastech 360
rail Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate
these issues.
Weather: In theory, maglev trains should
be unaffected by snow, ice, severe cold,
rain or high winds. However, as of yet no
maglev system has been installed in a
location with such a harsh climate.
Acceleration: Maglev vehicles
accelerate and decelerate faster than
mechanical systems regardless of the
slickness of the guideway or the slope
of the grade, because they are non-
contact systems.[92]
Track: Maglev trains are not compatible
with conventional track, and therefore
require custom infrastructure for their
entire route. By contrast conventional
high-speed trains such as the TGV are
able to run, albeit at reduced speeds, on
existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing
expenditure where new infrastructure
would be particularly expensive (such as
the final approaches to city terminals),
or on extensions where traffic does not
justify new infrastructure. John Harding,
former chief maglev scientist at the
Federal Railroad Administration, claimed
that separate maglev infrastructure
more than pays for itself with higher
levels of all-weather operational
availability and nominal maintenance
costs. These claims have yet to be
proven in an intense operational setting
and they do not consider the increased
maglev construction costs. However, in
countries like China, there are
discussion of building some key
conventional high-speed rail
tunnels/bridges to a standard that
would allow them upgrading to maglev.
Efficiency: Conventional rail is probably
more efficient at lower speeds. But due
to the lack of physical contact between
the track and the vehicle, maglev trains
experience no rolling resistance, leaving
only air resistance and electromagnetic
drag, potentially improving power
efficiency.[93] Some systems, however,
such as the Central Japan Railway
Company SCMaglev use rubber tires at
low speeds, reducing efficiency gains.
Weight: The electromagnets in many
EMS and EDS designs require between 1
and 2 kilowatts per ton.[94] The use of
superconductor magnets can reduce the
electromagnets' energy consumption. A
50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift
an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70
tons, which consumes 70–140 kilowatts
(94–188 hp). Most energy use for the
TRI is for propulsion and overcoming air
resistance at speeds over 100 miles per
hour (160 km/h).
Weight loading: High-speed rail requires
more support and construction for its
concentrated wheel loading. Maglev
cars are lighter and distribute weight
more evenly.[95]
Noise: Because the major source of
noise of a maglev train comes from
displaced air rather than from wheels
touching rails, maglev trains produce
less noise than a conventional train at
equivalent speeds. However, the
psychoacoustic profile of the maglev
may reduce this benefit: a study
concluded that maglev noise should be
rated like road traffic, while conventional
trains experience a 5–10 dB "bonus", as
they are found less annoying at the
same loudness level.[96][97][98]
Magnet reliability: Superconducting
magnets are generally used to generate
the powerful magnetic fields to levitate
and propel the trains. These magnets
must be kept below their critical
temperatures (this ranges from 4.2 K to
77 K, depending on the material). New
alloys and manufacturing techniques in
superconductors and cooling systems
have helped address this issue.
Control systems: No signalling systems
are needed for high-speed maglev,
because such systems are computer
controlled. Human operators cannot
react fast enough to manage high-speed
 trains. High-speed systems require
dedicated rights of way and are usually
elevated. Two maglev system
microwave towers are in constant
contact with trains. There is no need for
train whistles or horns, either.
Terrain: Maglevs are able to ascend
higher grades, offering more routing
flexibility and reduced tunneling.[99]

High-speed maglev comparison with

aircraft

Differences between airplane and maglev

travel:
Efficiency: For maglev systems the lift-
to-drag ratio can exceed that of aircraft
(for example Inductrack can approach
200:1 at high speed, far higher than any
aircraft). This can make maglevs more
efficient per kilometer. However, at high
cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag is
much larger than lift-induced drag. Jet-
powered aircraft take advantage of low
air density at high altitudes to
significantly reduce air drag. Hence
despite their lift-to-drag ratio
disadvantage, they can travel more
efficiently at high speeds than maglev
trains that operate at sea level.
 Routing: Maglevs offer competitive
journey times for distances of 800
kilometres (500 mi) or less. Additionally,
maglevs can easily serve intermediate
destinations.
Availability: Maglevs are little affected
by weather.
Travel time: Maglevs do not face the
extended security protocols faced by air
travelers nor is time consumed for
taxiing, or for queuing for take-off and
landing.

Economics
As more maglev systems are deployed,
experts expect construction costs to drop
by employing new construction methods
and from economies of scale.[100]

High-speed systems

The Shanghai maglev demonstration line

cost US$1.2 billion to build in 2004.[101]
This total includes capital costs such as
right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving,
on-site guideway manufacturing, in-situ
pier construction at 25 metres (82 ft)
intervals, a maintenance facility and
vehicle yard, several switches, two
stations, operations and control systems,
power feed system, cables and inverters,
and operational training. Ridership is not a
primary focus of this demonstration line,
since the Longyang Road station is on the
eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the
line is extended to South Shanghai Train
station and Hongqiao Airport station,
which may not happen because of
economic reasons, ridership was expected
to cover operation and maintenance costs
and generate significant net revenue.

The South Shanghai extension was

expected to cost approximately US$18
million per kilometre. In 2006, the German
government invested $125 million in
guideway cost reduction development that
produced an all-concrete modular design
that is faster to build and is 30% less
costly. Other new construction techniques
were also developed that put maglev at or
below price parity with new high-speed rail
construction.[102]

The United States Federal Railroad

Administration, in a 2005 report to
Congress, estimated cost per mile of
between US$50 million and US$100
million.[103] The Maryland Transit
Administration (MTA) Environmental
Impact Statement estimated a pricetag at
US$4.9 billion for construction, and $53
million a year for operations of its
project.[104]

The proposed Chuo Shinkansen maglev in

Japan was estimated to cost
approximately US$82 billion to build, with
a route requiring long tunnels. A Tokaido
maglev route replacing the current
Shinkansen would cost 1/10 the cost, as
no new tunnel would be needed, but noise
pollution issues made this infeasible.

Low-speed systems

The Japanese Linimo HSST, cost

approximately US$100 million/km to
build.[105] Besides offering improved
operation and maintenance costs over
other transit systems, these low-speed
maglevs provide ultra-high levels of
operational reliability and introduce little
noise and generate zero air pollution into
dense urban settings.

Records
The highest-recorded maglev speed is 603
kilometres per hour (375 mph), achieved in
Japan by JR Central's L0 superconducting
maglev on 21 April 2015,[106] 28 kilometres
per hour (17 mph) faster than the
conventional TGV wheel-rail speed record.
However, the operational and performance
differences between these two very
different technologies is far greater. The
TGV record was achieved accelerating
down a 72.4 kilometres (45 mi) slight
decline, requiring 13 minutes. It then took
another 77.25 kilometres (48 mi) for the
TGV to stop, requiring a total distance of
149.65 kilometres (93 mi) for the test.[107]
The L0 record, however, was achieved on
the 42.8 kilometres (26.6 mi) Yamanashi
test track – less than 1/3 the distance.[108]
No maglev or wheel-rail commercial
operation has actually been attempted at
speeds over 500 kilometres per hour
(310 mph).
History of maglev speed records
List of speed records set by maglev vehicles, by date, sortable

Year Country Train Speed Notes

90 kilometres
West
1971 Prinzipfahrzeug per hour
Germany
(56 mph)

164
West kilometres
1971 TR-02 (TSST)
Germany per hour
(102 mph)

60 kilometres
1972 Japan ML100 per hour crewed
(37 mph)

250
West kilometres
1973 TR04 crewed
Germany per hour
(160 mph)

230
West kilometres
1974 EET-01 uncrewed
Germany per hour
(140 mph)

401
West kilometres
1975 Komet by steam rocket propulsion, uncrewed
Germany per hour
(249 mph)

308
kilometres by supporting rockets propulsion, made in
1978 Japan HSST-01
per hour Nissan, uncrewed
(191 mph)

110
kilometres
1978 Japan HSST-02 crewed
per hour
(68 mph)
Year Country Train Speed Notes

504
(uncrewed) It succeeds in operation over
1979- kilometres
Japan ML-500R 500 kilometres per hour (310 mph) for the
12-12 per hour
first time in the world.
(313 mph)

517
1979- kilometres
Japan ML-500R (uncrewed)
12-21 per hour
(321 mph)

406
West kilometres
1987 TR-06 (crewed)
Germany per hour
(252 mph)

401
kilometres
1987 Japan MLU001 (crewed)
per hour
(249 mph)

413
West kilometres
1988 TR-06 (crewed)
Germany per hour
(257 mph)

436
West kilometres
1989 TR-07 (crewed)
Germany per hour
(271 mph)

450
kilometres
1993 Germany TR-07 (crewed)
per hour
(280 mph)

431
kilometres
1994 Japan MLU002N (uncrewed)
per hour
(268 mph)
Year Country Train Speed Notes

531
kilometres
1997 Japan MLX01 (crewed)
per hour
(330 mph)

550
kilometres
1997 Japan MLX01 (uncrewed)
per hour
(340 mph)

552
kilometres (crewed/five-car formation) Guinness
1999 Japan MLX01
per hour authorization.
(343 mph)

581
kilometres (crewed/three formation) Guinness
2003 Japan MLX01
per hour authorization.[109]
(361 mph)

590
kilometres
2015 Japan L0 (crewed/seven-car formation)[110]
per hour
(370 mph)

603
kilometres
2015 Japan L0 (crewed/seven-car formation)[106]
per hour
(375 mph)

Systems

Operational systems
High speed

Shanghai Maglev (2003)

A maglev train coming out of the

Pudong International Airport

The Shanghai Maglev Train, also known as

the Transrapid, has a top speed of 430
kilometres per hour (270 mph). The line is
the fastest, first commercially successful,
operational Maglev train designed to
connect Shanghai Pudong International
Airport and the outskirts of central
Pudong, Shanghai. It covers a distance of
30.5 kilometres (19.0 mi) in 7 or 8
minutes.[7]

In January 2001, the Chinese signed an

agreement with Transrapid to build an
EMS high-speed maglev line to link
Pudong International Airport with
Longyang Road Metro station on the
southeastern edge of Shanghai. This
Shanghai Maglev Train demonstration line,
or Initial Operating Segment (IOS), has
been in commercial operations since April
2004[111] and now operates 115 daily trips
(up from 110 in 2010) that traverse the 30
kilometres (19 mi) between the two
stations in 7 or 8 minutes, achieving a top
speed of 431 kilometres per hour
(268 mph) and averaging 266 kilometres
per hour (165 mph).[112] On a 12 November
2003 system commissioning test run, it
achieved 501 kilometres per hour
(311 mph), its designed top cruising
speed. The Shanghai maglev is faster than
Birmingham technology and comes with
on-time—to the second—reliability greater
than 99.97%.[113]

Plans to extend the line to Shanghai South

Railway Station and Hongqiao Airport on
the northwestern edge of Shanghai are on
hold. After the Shanghai–Hangzhou
Passenger Railway became operational in
late 2010, the maglev extension became
somewhat redundant and may be
cancelled.

Low speed

Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan) (2005)

Linimo train approaching Banpaku

Kinen Koen, towards Fujigaoka
Station in March 2005

The commercial automated "Urban

Maglev" system commenced operation in
March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. The Tobu
Kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the
Linimo line, covers 9 kilometres (5.6 mi). It
has a minimum operating radius of 75
metres (246 ft) and a maximum gradient
of 6%. The linear-motor magnetically
levitated train has a top speed of 100
kilometres per hour (62 mph). More than
10 million passengers used this "urban
maglev" line in its first three months of
operation. At 100 kilometres per hour
(62 mph), it is sufficiently fast for frequent
stops, has little or no noise impact on
surrounding communities, can navigate
short radius rights of way, and operates
during inclement weather. The trains were
designed by the Chubu HSST Development
Corporation, which also operates a test
track in Nagoya.[114]

Daejeon Expo Maglev (2008)

The first maglev test trials using

electromagnetic suspension opened to
public was HML-03, made by Hyundai
Heavy Industries for the Daejeon Expo in
1993, after five years of research and
manufacturing two prototypes, HML-01
and HML-02.[115][116][117] Government
research on urban maglev using
electromagnetic suspension began in
1994.[117] The first operating urban maglev
was UTM-02 in Daejeon beginning on 21
April 2008 after 14 years of development
and one prototype; UTM-01. The train runs
on a 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) track between
Expo Park and National Science
Museum[118][119] which has been
shortened with the redevelopment of Expo
Park. The track currently ends at the street
parallel to the science museum.
Meanwhile, UTM-02 conducted the world's
first-ever maglev simulation.[120][121]
However, UTM-02 is still the second
prototype of a final model. The final UTM
model of Rotem's urban maglev, UTM-03,
was used for a new line that opened in
2016 on Incheon's Yeongjong island
connecting Incheon International Airport
(see below).[122]

Incheon Airport Maglev (2016)

The Incheon Airport Maglev began

commercial operation on 3 February
2016.[45] It was developed and built
domestically. Compared to Linimo, it has a
more futuristic design thanks to it being
lighter with construction costs cut to
half.[123] It connects Incheon International
Airport with Yongyu Station, cutting
journey time.[124] It covers a distance of
6.1 km.

Changsha Maglev (2016)

 Changsha Maglev Train arriving at
Langli Station

The Hunan provincial government

launched the construction of a maglev line
between Changsha Huanghua
International Airport and Changsha South
Railway Station, covering a distance of
18.55 km. Construction started in May
2014 and was completed by the end of
2015.[125][126] Trial runs began on 26
December 2015 and trial operations
started on 6 May 2016.[127] As of 13 June
2018 the Changsha maglev had covered a
distance of 1.7 million km and carried
nearly 6 million passengers. A second
generation of these vehicles has been
produced which have a top speed of
160 km/h (99 mph).[128] In July 2021 the
new model entered service operating at a
top speed of 140 km/h (87 mph), which
reduced the travel time by 3 minutes.[129]

Beijing Line S1 (2017)

Beijing has built China's second low-speed

maglev line, Line S1, Beijing Subway, using
technology developed by National
University of Defense Technology. The line
was opened on 30 December 2017. The
line operates at speeds up to 100
kilometres per hour (62 mph).[130]

Fenghuang Maglev (2022)

Fenghuang Maglev ( 凤凰磁浮) is a

medium- to low-speed maglev line in
Fenghuang County, Xiangxi, Hunan
province, China. The line operates at
speeds up to 100 kilometres per hour
(62 mph). The first phase is 9.12
kilometres (5.67 mi) with 4 stations (and 2
more future infill stations). The first phase
opened on 30 July 2022[131] and connects
the Fenghuanggucheng railway station on
the Zhangjiajie–Jishou–Huaihua high-
speed railway with the Fenghuang Folklore
Garden.[132]

Maglevs under construction

Chūō Shinkansen (Japan)

The Chūō Shinkansen route (bold yellow and red

line) and existing Tōkaidō Shinkansen route (thin
blue line)

The Chuo Shinkansen is a high-speed

maglev line in Japan. Construction began
in 2014, commercial operations was
expected to start by 2027.[133] The 2027
target was given up in July 2020.[134] The
Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project aims to
connect Tokyo and Osaka by way of
Nagoya, the capital city of Aichi, in
approximately one hour, less than half the
travel time of the fastest existing bullet
trains connecting the three
metropolises.[135] The full track between
Tokyo and Osaka was originally expected
to be completed in 2045, but the operator
is now aiming for 2037.[136][137][138]

The L0 Series train type is undergoing

testing by the Central Japan Railway
Company (JR Central) for eventual use on
the Chūō Shinkansen line. It set a crewed
world speed record of 603 kilometres per
hour (375 mph) on 21 April 2015.[106] The
trains are planned to run at a maximum
speed of 505 kilometres per hour
(314 mph),[139] offering journey times of 40
minutes between Tokyo (Shinagawa
Station) and Nagoya, and 1 hour 7 minutes
between Tokyo and Osaka (Shin-Ōsaka
Station).[140]

Qingyuan Maglev (China)

Qingyuan Maglev ( 清远磁浮旅游专线) is a

medium- to low-speed maglev line in
Qingyuan, Guangdong province, China. The
line will operate at speeds up to 100
kilometres per hour (62 mph).[141] The first
phase is 8.1 km with 3 stations (and 1
more future infill station).[141] The first
phase was originally schedule to open in
October 2020[142] and will connect the
Yinzhan railway station on the
Guangzhou–Qingyuan intercity railway
with the Qingyuan Chimelong Theme
Park.[143] In the long term the line will be
38.5 km.[144]

Test tracks

AMT test track – Powder Springs,

Georgia, USA

A second prototype system in Powder

Springs, Georgia, USA, was built by
American Maglev Technology, Inc. The test
track is 610 metres (2,000 ft) long with a
168.6 metres (553 ft) curve. Vehicles are
operated up to 60 kilometres per hour
(37 mph), below the proposed operational
maximum of 97 kilometres per hour
(60 mph). A June 2013 review of the
technology called for an extensive testing
program to be carried out to ensure the
system complies with various regulatory
requirements including the American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) People
Mover Standard. The review noted that the
test track is too short to assess the
vehicles' dynamics at the maximum
proposed speeds.[145]
FTA's UMTD program, USA

In the US, the Federal Transit

Administration (FTA) Urban Maglev
Technology Demonstration program
funded the design of several low-speed
urban maglev demonstration projects. It
assessed HSST for the Maryland
Department of Transportation and maglev
technology for the Colorado Department
of Transportation. The FTA also funded
work by General Atomics at California
University of Pennsylvania to evaluate the
MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000
of Florida superconducting EDS system.
Other US urban maglev demonstration
projects of note are the LEVX in
Washington State and the Massachusetts-
based Magplane.

San Diego, California USA

General Atomics has a 120-metre (390 ft)

test facility in San Diego, that is used to
test Union Pacific's 8 kilometres (5 mi)
freight shuttle in Los Angeles. The
technology is "passive" (or "permanent"),
using permanent magnets in a Halbach
array for lift and requiring no
electromagnets for either levitation or
propulsion. General Atomics received
US$90 million in research funding from the
federal government. They are also
considering their technology for high-
speed passenger services.[146]

SCMaglev, Yamanashi Japan

Japan has a demonstration line in

Yamanashi prefecture where test train
SCMaglev L0 Series Shinkansen reached
603 kilometres per hour (375 mph), faster
than any wheeled trains.[106] The
demonstration line will become part of the
Chūō Shinkansen linking Tokyo and
Nagoya which, is currently under
construction.
These trains use superconducting
magnets, which allow for a larger gap, and
repulsive/attractive-type electrodynamic
suspension (EDS).[76][147] In comparison,
Transrapid uses conventional
electromagnets and attractive-type
electromagnetic suspension
(EMS).[148][149]

On 15 November 2014, The Central Japan

Railway Company ran eight days of testing
for the experimental maglev Shinkansen
train on its test track in Yamanashi
Prefecture. One hundred passengers
covered a 42.8-kilometre (26.6 mi) route
between the cities of Uenohara and
Fuefuki, reaching speeds of up to 500
kilometres per hour (310 mph).[150]

Sengenthal, Germany and Chengdu, China

Transport System Bögl, a division of

German construction company Max Bögl,
has built a test track in Sengenthal,
Bavaria, Germany. In appearance, it's more
like the German M-Bahn than the
Transrapid system.[151] The vehicle tested
on the track is patented in the US by Max
Bögl.[152] The company is also in a joint
venture with a Chinese firm. A 3.5 km
(2.2 mi) demonstration line has been built
near Chengdu, China and two vehicles
were airlifted there in June, 2000.[55] In
April 2021 a vehicle on the Chinese test
track hit a top speed of 169 km/h
(105 mph).[56]

Southwest Jiaotong University, China

On 31 December 2000, the first crewed

high-temperature superconducting maglev
was tested successfully at Southwest
Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China. This
system is based on the principle that bulk
high-temperature superconductors can be
levitated stably above or below a
permanent magnet. The load was over 530
kilograms (1,170 lb) and the levitation gap
over 20 millimetres (0.79 in). The system
uses liquid nitrogen to cool the
superconductor.[153][154][155]

Jiading Campus of Tongji University,

China

A 1.5 km (0.93 mi) maglev test track has

been operating since 2006 at the Jiading
Campus of Tongji University, northwest of
Shanghai. The track uses the same design
as the operating Shanghai Maglev. Top
speed is restricted to 120 km/h (75 mph)
due to the length of track and its topology.

MagRail test track, Poland

In the first quarter of 2022, Polish
technology startup Nevomo completed the
construction of Europe's longest test track
for passive magnetic levitation. The 700
meter-long railway track in Subcarpathian
Voivodeship in Poland allows vehicles
utilizing the company's MagRail system to
travel at speeds of up to 160 kph.[156] The
installation of all necessary wayside
equipment was completed in December
2022 and tests began in spring 2023.[157]

Proposed maglev systems

Many maglev systems have been
proposed in North America, Asia and
Europe.[158] Many are in the early planning
stages or were explicitly rejected.

Australia

Sydney-Illawarra

A maglev route was proposed between

Sydney and Wollongong.[159] The proposal
came to prominence in the mid-1990s. The
Sydney–Wollongong commuter corridor is
the largest in Australia, with upwards of
20,000 people commuting each day.
Current trains use the Illawarra line,
between the cliff face of the Illawarra
escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, with
travel times about 2 hours. The proposal
would cut travel times to 20 minutes.

Melbourne

The proposed Melbourne maglev

connecting the city of Geelong
through Metropolitan Melbourne's
outer suburban growth corridors,
Tullamarine and Avalon domestic in
and international terminals in under
20 min. and on to Frankston, Victoria,
in under 30 min.

In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to

the Government of Victoria to build a
privately funded and operated maglev line
to service the Greater Melbourne
metropolitan area in response to the
Eddington Transport Report that did not
investigate above-ground transport
options.[160][161] The maglev would service
a population of over 4 million and the
proposal was costed at A$8 billion.

However, despite road congestion and

Australia's highest roadspace per capita,
the government dismissed the proposal in
favour of road expansion including an
A$8.5 billion road tunnel, $6 billion
extension of the Eastlink to the Western
Ring Road and a $700 million Frankston
Bypass.

Canada
Toronto Zoo: Edmonton-based Magnovate
has proposed a new ride and
transportation system at the Toronto Zoo
reviving the Toronto Zoo Domain Ride
system, which was closed following two
severe accidents in 1994. The Zoo's board
unanimously approved the proposal on 29
November 2018.

The company will construct and operate

the $25 million system on the former route
of the Domain Ride (known locally as the
Monorail, despite not being considered
one) at zero cost to the Zoo and operate it
for 15 years, splitting the profits with the
Zoo. The ride will serve a single-directional
loop around Zoo grounds, serving five
stations and likely replacing the current
Zoomobile tour tram service. Planned to
be operational by 2022 at the earliest, this
will become the first commercially
operating maglev system in North America
should it be approved.[162]

China

Beijing – Guangzhou line

A maglev test line linking Xianning in

Hubei Province and Changsha in Hunan
Province will start construction in 2020.
The test line is about 200 kilometres
(120 mi) in length and might be part of
Beijing – Guangzhou maglev in long-term
planning.[163][164] In 2021, the Guangdong
government proposed a Maglev line
between Hong Kong and Guangzhou via
Shenzhen and beyond to Beijing.[165][166]

Other proposed lines

Shanghai – Hangzhou

China planned to extend the existing

Shanghai Maglev Train,[167] initially by
around 35 kilometres (22 mi) to Shanghai
Hongqiao Airport and then 200 kilometres
(120 mi) to the city of Hangzhou
(Shanghai-Hangzhou Maglev Train). If
built, this would be the first inter-city
maglev rail line in commercial service.

The project was controversial and

repeatedly delayed. In May 2007 the
project was suspended by officials,
reportedly due to public concerns about
radiation from the system.[168] In January
and February 2008 hundreds of residents
demonstrated in downtown Shanghai that
the line route came too close to their
homes, citing concerns about sickness
due to exposure to the strong magnetic
field, noise, pollution and devaluation of
property near to the lines.[169][170] Final
approval to build the line was granted on
18 August 2008. Originally scheduled to be
ready by Expo 2010,[171] plans called for
completion by 2014. The Shanghai
municipal government considered multiple
options, including building the line
underground to allay public fears. This
same report stated that the final decision
had to be approved by the National
Development and Reform
Commission.[172]

In 2007 the Shanghai municipal

government was considering building a
factory in Nanhui district to produce low-
speed maglev trains for urban use.[173]
 Shanghai – Beijing

A proposed line would have connected

Shanghai to Beijing, over a distance of
1,300 kilometres (800 mi), at an estimated
cost of £15.5 billion.[174] No projects had
been revealed as of 2014.[175]

Germany

On 25 September 2007, Bavaria

announced a high-speed maglev-rail
service from Munich to its airport. The
Bavarian government signed contracts
with Deutsche Bahn and Transrapid with
Siemens and ThyssenKrupp for the €1.85
billion project.[176]

On 27 March 2008, the German Transport

minister announced the project had been
cancelled due to rising costs associated
with constructing the track. A new
estimate put the project between €3.2–3.4
billion.[177]

Hong Kong

In March 2021 a government official said

Hong Kong would be included in a planned
maglev network across China, planned to
operate at 600 km/h (370 mph) and begin
opening by 2030.[178]

Hong Kong is already connected to the

Chinese high-speed rail network by the
Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong
Express Rail Link, which opened on
Sunday 23 September 2018.

India

Mumbai – Delhi: A project was presented

to then Indian railway minister (Mamata
Banerjee) by an American company to
connect Mumbai and Delhi. Then Prime
Minister Manmohan Singh said that if the
line project was successful the Indian
government would build lines between
other cities and also between Mumbai
Central and Chhatrapati Shivaji
International Airport.[179]

Mumbai – Nagpur: The State of

Maharashtra approved a feasibility study
for a maglev train between Mumbai and
Nagpur, some 1,000 kilometres (620 mi)
apart.[180]

Chennai – Bangalore – Mysore: A detailed

report was to be prepared and submitted
by December 2012 for a line to connect
Chennai to Mysore via Bangalore at a cost
$26 million per kilometre, reaching speeds
of 350 kilometres per hour (220 mph).[181]

Iran

In May 2009, Iran and a German company

signed an agreement to use maglev to link
Tehran and Mashhad. The agreement was
signed at the Mashhad International Fair
site between Iranian Ministry of Roads and
Transportation and the German company.
The 900 kilometres (560 mi) line possibly
could reduce travel time between Tehran
and Mashhad to about 2.5 hours. Munich-
based Schlegel Consulting Engineers said
they had signed the contract with the
Iranian ministry of transport and the
governor of Mashad. "We have been
mandated to lead a German consortium in
this project," a spokesman said. "We are in
a preparatory phase." The project could be
worth between €10 billion and €12 billion,
the Schlegel spokesman said.[182]

Italy

A first proposal was formalized in April

2008, in Brescia, by journalist Andrew
Spannaus who recommended a high-
speed connection between Malpensa
airport to the cities of Milan, Bergamo and
Brescia.[183]
In March 2011, Nicola Oliva proposed a
maglev connection between Pisa airport
and the cities of Prato and Florence (Santa
Maria Novella train station and Florence
Airport).[184][185] The travelling time would
be reduced from the typical 1 hour 15
minutes to around 20 minutes.[186] The
second part of the line would be a
connection to Livorno, to integrate
maritime, aerial and terrestrial transport
systems.[187][188]

Malaysia/Singapore

A Consortium led by UEM Group Bhd and

ARA Group, proposed maglev technology
to link Malaysian cities to Singapore. The
idea was first mooted by YTL Group. Its
technology partner then was said to be
Siemens. High costs sank the proposal.
The concept of a high-speed rail link from
Kuala Lumpur to Singapore resurfaced. It
was cited as a proposed "high impact"
project in the Economic Transformation
Programme (ETP) that was unveiled in
2010.[189] Approval has been given for the
Kuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail
project, but not using maglev technology.

Philippines
Philtram Consortium's Cebu Monorail
project will be initially built as a monorail
system. In the future, it will be upgraded to
a patented maglev technology named
Spin-Induced Lenz's Law Magnetic
Levitation Train.[190]

Switzerland

SwissRapide: The SwissRapide AG

together with the SwissRapide Consortium
was planning and developing the first
maglev monorail system for intercity
traffic between the country's major cities.
SwissRapide was to be financed by private
investors. In the long-term, the
SwissRapide Express was to connect the
major cities north of the Alps between
Geneva and St. Gallen, including Lucerne
and Basel. The first projects were Bern –
Zurich, Lausanne – Geneva as well as
Zurich – Winterthur. The first line
(Lausanne – Geneva or Zurich –
Winterthur) could go into service as early
as 2020.[191][192]

Swissmetro: An earlier project,

Swissmetro AG envisioned a partially
evacuated underground maglev (a
vactrain). As with SwissRapide,
Swissmetro envisioned connecting the
major cities in Switzerland with one
another. In 2011, Swissmetro AG was
dissolved and the IPRs from the
organisation were passed onto the EPFL in
Lausanne.[193]

United Kingdom

London – Glasgow: A line[194] was

proposed in the United Kingdom from
London to Glasgow with several route
options through the Midlands, Northwest
and Northeast of England. It was reported
to be under favourable consideration by
the government.[195] The approach was
rejected in the Government White Paper
Delivering a Sustainable Railway published
on 24 July 2007.[196] Another high-speed
link was planned between Glasgow and
Edinburgh but the technology remained
unsettled.[197][198][199]

United States

Washington, D.C. to New York City: Using

Superconducting Maglev (SCMAGLEV)
technology developed by the Central
Japan Railway Company, the Northeast
Maglev would ultimately connect major
Northeast metropolitan hubs and airports
traveling more than 480 kilometers per
hour (300 miles per hour),[200] with a goal
of one-hour service between Washington,
D.C. and New York City.[201] The Federal
Railroad Administration and Maryland
Department of Transportation are
currently preparing an Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS) to evaluate the
potential impacts of constructing and
operating the system's first leg between
Washington, DC and Baltimore, Maryland
with an intermediate stop at BWI
Airport.[202]

Union Pacific freight conveyor: Plans are

under way by American railroad operator
Union Pacific to build a 7.9 kilometres
(4.9 mi) container shuttle between the
Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, with
UP's intermodal container transfer facility.
The system would be based on "passive"
technology, especially well-suited to
freight transfer as no power is needed on
board. The vehicle is a chassis that glides
to its destination. The system is being
designed by General Atomics.[146]

California-Nevada Interstate Maglev:

High-speed maglev lines between major
cities of southern California and Las
Vegas are under study via the California-
Nevada Interstate Maglev Project.[203] This
plan was originally proposed as part of an
I-5 or I-15 expansion plan, but the federal
government ruled that it must be
separated from interstate public work
projects.

After the decision, private groups from

Nevada proposed a line running from Las
Vegas to Los Angeles with stops in Primm,
Nevada; Baker, California; and other points
throughout San Bernardino County into
Los Angeles. Politicians expressed
concern that a high-speed rail line out of
state would carry spending out of state
along with travelers.

The Pennsylvania Project: The

Pennsylvania High-Speed Maglev Project
corridor extends from the Pittsburgh
International Airport to Greensburg, with
intermediate stops in Downtown
Pittsburgh and Monroeville. This initial
project was claimed to serve
approximately 2.4 million people in the
Pittsburgh metropolitan area. The
Baltimore proposal competed with the
Pittsburgh proposal for a US$90 million
federal grant.[204]

San Diego-Imperial County airport: In

2006, San Diego commissioned a study for
a maglev line to a proposed airport located
in Imperial County. SANDAG claimed that
the concept would be an "airports [sic]
without terminals", allowing passengers to
check in at a terminal in San Diego
("satellite terminals"), take the train to the
airport and directly board the airplane. In
addition, the train would have the potential
to carry freight. Further studies were
requested although no funding was
agreed.[205]

Orlando International Airport to Orange

County Convention Center: In December
2012, the Florida Department of
Transportation gave conditional approval
to a proposal by American Maglev to build
a privately run 14.9 miles (24 km), 5-
station line from Orlando International
Airport to Orange County Convention
Center. The Department requested a
technical assessment and said there
would be a request for proposals issued to
reveal any competing plans. The route
requires the use of a public right of
way.[206] If the first phase succeeded
American Maglev would propose two
further phases (of 4.9 and 19.4 miles [7.9
and 31.2 km]) to carry the line to Walt
Disney World.[207]

San Juan – Caguas: A 16.7-mile (26.9 km)

maglev project was proposed linking Tren
Urbano's Cupey Station in San Juan with
two proposed stations in the city of
Caguas, south of San Juan. The maglev
line would run along Highway PR-52,
connecting both cities. According to
American Maglev project cost would be
approximately US$380 million.[208][209][210]

Incidents
Two incidents involved fires. A Japanese
test train in Miyazaki, MLU002, was
completely consumed by a fire in
1991.[211]

On 11 August 2006, a fire broke out on the

commercial Shanghai Transrapid shortly
after arriving at the Longyang terminal.
People were evacuated without incident
before the vehicle was moved about 1
kilometre to keep smoke from filling the
station. NAMTI officials toured the SMT
maintenance facility in November 2010
and learned that the cause of the fire was
"thermal runaway" in a battery tray. As a
result, SMT secured a new battery vendor,
installed new temperature sensors and
insulators and redesigned the trays.

On 22 September 2006, a Transrapid train

collided with a maintenance vehicle on a
test/publicity run in Lathen (Lower Saxony
/ north-western Germany).[212][213] Twenty-
three people were killed and ten were
injured; these were the first maglev crash
fatalities. The accident was caused by
human error. Charges were brought
against three Transrapid employees after a
year-long investigation.[214]

Safety is a greater concern with high-

speed public transport due to the potential
for high impact force and large number of
casualties. In the case of maglev trains as
well as conventional high-speed rails, an
incident could result from human error,
including loss of power, or factors outside
human control, such as ground movement
caused by an earthquake.

See also
Bombardier Advanced Rapid Transit –
transit systems using linear induction
motors
Electromagnetic suspension
Ground-effect train
Hyperloop
Land speed record for rail vehicles
Launch loop would be a maglev system
for launching to orbit or escape velocity.
Mass driver
Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line
Oleg Tozoni worked on a published non-
linearly stabilised maglev design.
StarTram – a maglev launch system
Transfer table
 Energy
portal
Trains
portal

Notes
1. Zehden describes a geometry in which the
linear motor is used below a steel beam,
giving partial levitation of the vehicle.
These patents were later cited by
Electromagnetic apparatus generating a
gliding magnetic field by Jean Candelas
(U.S. Patent 4,131,813 (https://patents.goo
gle.com/patent/US4131813) ), Air cushion
supported, omnidirectionally steerable,
traveling magnetic field propulsion device
by Harry A. Mackie (U.S. Patent 3,357,511
(https://patents.google.com/patent/US33
 57511) ) and Two-sided linear induction
motor especially for suspended vehicles by
Schwarzer et al. (U.S. Patent 3,820,472 (htt
ps://patents.google.com/patent/US38204
72) )

2. These German patents would be GR643316

(1937), GR44302 (1938), GR707032 (1941).

3. This is the case with the Moscow Monorail

—currently the only non-maglev linear
motor-propelled monorail train in active
service.

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Further reading
Heller, Arnie (June 1998). "A New Approach
for Magnetically Levitating Trains—and
Rockets"
(http://www.llnl.gov/str/Post.html) . Science
& Technology Review. Archived (https://web.
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on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2005.
Henry H. Kolm; Richard D. Thornton (October
1973). "Electromagnetic Flight". Scientific
American. Springer Nature. 229 (4): 17–25.
Bibcode:1973SciAm.229d..17K (https://ui.ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973SciAm.229d..17
K) . doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1073-17
(https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificameric
an1073-17) .
Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen –
From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan.
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32052-6.
Liu, Zhigang (2015). Maglev Trains: Key
Underlying Technologies. Springer. ISBN 978-
3-662-45672-9.
Moon, Francis C. (1994). Superconducting
Levitation Applications to Bearings and
Magnetic Transportation. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-
471-55925-3.
Rossberg, Ralf Roman (1983). Radlos in die
Zukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme.
Orell Füssli Verlag. ASIN B002ROWD5M (http
s://www.amazon.com/dp/B002ROWD5M) .
Rossberg, Ralf Roman (1993). Radlos in die
Zukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme.
Orell Fuessli Verlag. ISBN 978-3-280-01503-
2.
Simmons, Jack; Biddle, Gordon (1997). The
Oxford Companion to British Railway History:
From 1603 to the 1990s. Oxford: Oxford
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External links
Media related to Magnetic levitation
trains at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of maglev at
Wiktionary
United States Federal Railroad
Administration (https://web.archive.org/
web/20050404190644/http://www.fra.d
ot.gov/us/content/200)
US MagneticGlide (http://www.magnetic
glide.com/)
The International Maglev Board (http://w
ww.maglevboard.net/) Maglev
professionals' info platform for all
maglev transport systems and related
technologies.
Maglev Net – Maglev News and
Information (http://www.maglev.net/)
Japanese Railway Technical Research
Institute (RTRI) (https://web.archive.org/
web/20051102050249/http://www.rtri.o
r.jp/index.html)
Magnetic Levitation (https://curlie.org/S
cience/Physics/Electromagnetism/Mag
netic_Levitation) at Curlie
Magnetic Levitation for Transportation
(http://www.railserve.com/maglev.htm
l)
Retrieved from
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title=Maglev&oldid=1173780943"

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