22

CHAPTER
Current electricity:
DIRECT CURRENT CICUITS

Direct current: A current whose magnitude and direction always remain constant is called as direct
current.
The amount of charge flow through a conductor per unit time is called current. It is denoted by (I)
and has unit Ampere (A) in SI system.
charge (q)
i.e. I = time (t)

Current density (⟶J )

The current density at a point is defined as the electric current per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of flow whose direction is the direction of flow of positive charge
I
i.e. J= A , Its unit is A/m2.
Factors affecting the resistance
The resistance of a conductor depends up on the (i) length (ii) area of cross section (iii) temperature (iv)
nature of a material of conductors as.
ρl
R= ....... (i)
A
Where, ρ is proportionality constant and called as resistivity or specific resistance of conductor.
We have from above equation
RA 1 1
ρ = l , Conductance (C) = Resistance (R) And Conductivity (σ) = resistivity (ρ)
Mechanism of metallic conduction
Suppose that charge q crosses through a plane at PQ under the action of the electric field in time t.
Then, current flowing through the conductor is given by,
q
I =t .......(i)
In time t, all those electrons will cross through the plane at PQ lie
→
up to a distance x from it. E
Therefore, number of electrons crossing through the plane at P in A B
time t, N = nV + -
Where,
n = number of electrons per unit volume.
V = volume within length x.
If e is charge on an electron, the charge crossing through + -
plane at P in time t, V
q = Ne= nV Again, volume, V= A x
Where, A is the cross-section area of conductor.
so, q= nAxe ......... (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
n(Ax)e x
I = t = nAvde = vdenA......... (iii), Where, drift velocity (vd) = t
Again, the electric current per unit area of cross-section of the conductor is called current density and is
denoted by J.
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
I ne2τ
J = A = nvde and σ =  m  is conductivity of conductor.
 
Relation between current density and electric field
  1 ne2τ
Then, J =  E where, σ = ρ =  m  is conductivity of conductor.
 
This is the relation between current density and electric filed.
Ohm's law
It states that when the physical conditions (temperature, mechanical strain, humidity, moisture,
pressure etc) remaining unchanged; the current flowing through a conductor is always directly
proportional to the potential difference across its two ends of the circuit. Mathematically, I  V
Conversely, V I ∴V = RI
Where, the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor. The above equation is
mathematical form of ohm's law.
Variation of resistance with temperature
We know that resistance depends on length as Rl and length depends on temperature as
l2 =l1(1+αθ)
R2 – R1
 = → R2 = R1 (1 +  θ)
R1θ
Similarly the temperature co-efficient of resistance can be expressed in terms of resistivity also i.e.
2 – 1
= →  2 = 1 (1 + θ)
 1 (θ2 – θ1)
Combination of Resistors
Resistances in series
Then according to Ohm's law. V2
V1
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3 A I B
We have, V= V1 + V2 + V3 R1 R2 R3
or, V= I(R1 + R2 + R3)... (i)
If R is equivalent resistance to the series combination of R1, R2 and R3 then,
R = R1 + R2 + R3 ......... (ii)
R1
Resistances in parallel
The current in parallel circuit, I = I1 + I2 + I3 ......... (i)
I R2
Now, potential difference across each resistance is V.
Therefore, applying Ohm's law, we have, A R3 B
V V V
I1 = R , I2 = R , I3 = R
1 2 3
Therefore, equation (i) becomes
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
Potential divider circuit:
The potential difference (V1) across upper resistance is given by,
E
V1 = IR1=  R1
R1 + R2
Similarly, potential difference (V2) across lower terminal is,
E
V2 = IR2= R + R  R2
1 2
Electric power
The electric power of a circuit or an appliance is the rate at which it consumes electric energy.
Suppose a constant potential difference V is maintained across the two ends of a conductor and a current I flow
through it for time t. Then, electric energy consumed is given by
W= VIt
 Direct Current cicuits 325

Therefore, electric power of circuit,

W VIt
P = =
t t
P = VI
The electric power of a circuit is said to be one watt, if one ampere of current flows through it at a potential
difference of one volt.
Thus, 1 watt = 1Volt  1 ampere
The bigger unit of electric power is kilo watt (KW)
Electric energy
The electric energy consumed in a circuit in time t is given by
W = VIt = (VI)t
But VI = electric power of the circuit. Therefore,
Electric energy = electric power  time
or, W =Pt ……(i)
The electric energy consumed in a circuit is called one watt hour, if an electric power of one watt is
consumed for one hour,
1 watt hour = 3600Joule
The bigger unit of electric power is kilowatt hour (KWh), called one unit.
Relationship among E.M.F., terminal P.D. and internal resistance of the cell
When the circuit is closed, the current will flow through the circuit. The E
r
E
magnitude of the current is given by, I = R + r I
Then, R
E = IR + Ir
V
Where R + r is total resistance of the circuit
or, E = V + Ir where, V be the terminal potential difference.
or, E = IR + Ir
or, E = I (R + r) …… (i)
Also, V = IR …… (ii)
E
From (i) and (ii) we get, r =  V – 1 R
 
Which is the required relation between e.m.f., terminal potential difference and internal resistance?
Output power and efficiency of an electric circuit
Suppose a current I flows through the circuit. Then,
E E
I= r
R+r
Energy supplied per second or the power generated by the cell is given by I
R
Pin = e.m.f  charge driven in one second
or, Pin = EI
If V is the terminal potential difference of the cell, then output power is given by, Pout = VI
The ratio of the output power to the power generated is called the efficiency of the complete circuit. It
is denoted by .
Pout VI V R
 = = = = …… (i)
Pin EI E R + r
Therefore, the efficiency of a circuit as a whole is always less than unity cell.

Key Formulae
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
 Current in conductor,  Variation of resistance with temperature
I = nAvde R – R0
I =
 Current density, J = = nvde R0
A
 Resistances in series
L
 Resistance, R=  R = R1 + R2 + R3
A
 Conductivity ()
 Resistances in parallel
The reciprocal of resistivity of conductor is called 1 1 1 1
conductivity. = + +
R R1 R2 R3
1  Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter
 Conductivity () =
resistivity() Ig
 Ohm's law, V = RI S= G
 Relationship among EMF, terminal pd and internal
I – Ig
resistance of the cell.  Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter
V
r= ( )E–V
V
R

R= –G
Ig
Electric power, P = VI
 Joule's laws of heating
H = I2 R  Electric energy
W = VIt
Standard values:
Resistivity of nicrome, ρ =1.1×10-6 Ωm Resitivity of brass, ρ = (0.6 - 0.9)×10-7 Ωm
Numerical Examples
1. What is the drift velocity of the electron when there is a current of 4.0A in wire of cross-sectional
area 10–6m2? If the number of free electrons is 1029 per m3. (e = 1.6 ×10–19C)
Solution: Given,
Current (I) = 4A
Area (A) = 10–6m2
Number of electron per m3 (n) = 1029
We have,
I = vdenA
I 4
∴ vd = enA = 1.6 ×10–19 ×1029 ×10–6 = 2.5 × 10–4m/s
Hence, the drift velocity of electron is 2.5 × 10–4m/s.
2. A strip of metal 1.2cm wide and 1.5  10-3 cm thick carries a current of 0.50 A along its length. If it is
assumed that the metal contains 5  1023 free electrons per cm3. Calculate the mean drift velocity of
these electrons (e = 1.6  10-19C).
Solution: Given,
Area (A) = 1.2  1.5  10-3cm2
= 1.8  10-3 cm2
= 1.8  10-7 m2
Current (I) = 0.50A
Electron density (n) = 5  1022 per cm3 = 5  1028 per m3
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6  10-19C
Now, (I) = vdenA
I 0.50
Drift velocity (vd) = = = 3.5  10-4 m/s
neA 5  1028  1.6  10-19  1.8  10-7
Hence, the drift velocity is 3.5  10-4 m/s.
3. A copper wire has a diameter of 1.02 mm and caries a constant current of 1.67A. If the density of free
electrons in copper is 8.5 × 1028/m3, calculate the current density and the drift velocity of the electrons.
Solution: Given,
Diameter (d) = 1.02 mm = 1.02 × 10–3m
Current (I) = 1.67A
Electron charge (e) = 1.6 × 10–19C
 Direct Current cicuits 327

Concentration of electron (n) = 8.5 × 1028/m3

Current density (J) =?
Drift velocity (vd) =?
Now,
d2 ( × 1.02 × 10–3)2
Area of cross section (A) = 4 = 4 = 8.2 × 10–7m2
We have,
I 1.67
Current density (J) = = = 1.96 × 106A/m2
A 8.5 × 10–7
Again, (J) = vden
J 1.96 × 106
(vd) = en = 1.6 × 10–19 × 8.5 × 10–28 = 1.4 × 10–4m/s.
Hence, the drift velocity is 1.4 × 10–4m/s.
4. The current I flows through a uniform wire of diameter ‛d’, when the drift velocity of free electrons is
v. What will be the drift velocity of electrons if the same current flows through a wire of diameter
d/2, made of the same material?
Solution:
We have the relation between current and drift velocity, I = vdenA. This shows that the drift velocity
is inversely proportional to the cross-section area therefore,
1
vd  A
∴ v1 × A1 = vd × A2
A1
or, v2 = v1 × A
2

лd2
4
or, v2 = v × = 4v.
 2 × лd2
1
2  4
∴ The drift velocity increases by four times.
5. Potential difference of 200 volt is maintained across a conductor of resistance 50 ohm. Calculate the
number of electrons flowing through it in one second. Charge on electron e = 1.6  10-19C.
Solution: Given,
Potential difference (V) = 200V
Resistance (R) = 50
Charge of the electron (e) = 1.6  10-19C
V 200
Now, current (I) = = = 4A
R 50
Also, charge passing through a conductor in time t is given by
q = It
 Charge passing in 1 second,
q = I  1 = 4  1 = 4C
If N is number of electrons flowing in 1s, then
q 4
N =e= = 2.5  1019
1.6  10-19
Hence, the number of atoms passing through the conductor is 2.5  1019.
6. Calculate the resistivity of wire of resistance 0.04, area of cross-section 10-4m2 and length 20cm.
Solution: Given,
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
Resistance (R) = 0.04
Area (A) = 10-4 m2
Length (l) = 20cm = 0.2m
Resistivity () =?
l
Now, R = A

RA 0.04 10-4
or,  = l = = 2  10-5 -m
0.2
Hence, the resistivity of material is 2  10-5 -m.
7. Resistance of a wire of length 1m, diameter 1 mm is 2.2. Calculate its resistivity and conductivity.
Solution: Given,
Length (l) = 1m
Diameter (d) = 1mm = 10–3m.
Resistance (R) = 2.2Ω
Resistivity (ρ) =?
Conductivity (σ) =?
We have,
R 2.2 πd2
Resistivity (ρ) = l ×A = ×
1  4 
10–6
= 2.2π 4 =1.73×10–6 Ωm
1
Now, conductivity (σ) = ρ = 5.8×105 (Ωm)–1
Hence, the resistivity and conductivity are 1.73×10–6 Ωm and 5.8×105 (Ωm)–1 respectively.
8. A wire of resistance 15 is drawn out so that its length is increased to twice its original length.
Calculate its new resistance.
Solution: Given,
Resistance (R) = 15
Let be l the length and r be the radius of the wire. Then,
l l
R= = 2
A r
Here  is resistivity of the wire.
l
 15 =  2 ….(i)
r
Let r' be the radius of the wire, when its length becomes l' = 2l.
In both the cases, volume of the wire should be same.
Therefore,
 r2l = r'2(l')
or, r2l = r'2(2l)
r2
or, r'2 = 2
It R' is new value of the resistance of the wire, then
l' 2l 4l
R' =  2 =  r2 = 2 …. (ii)
r' r
2

From equation (i) and (ii), we have

R' = 4  15 = 60 
Hence, the new resistance is 60.
 Direct Current cicuits 329

9. A current of 1.5A is passed through a wire of length 1m and diameter 2mm. If the specific resistance is 2.42 
10-8 m, find the potential difference between the ends of the wire in milli-volt.
Solution: Given,
Current (I) = 1.5A
Length (l) = 1m
Resistivity () = 2.42  10-8m
Diameter of the wire (d) = 2mm = 2  10-3m
 Area of cross-section of the wire,
d2   (2  10-3)2
A = 4 = 4 =   10-6 m2
l 1
Now, R =  A = 2.42  10-8  = 7.7 10-3m
  10-6
Potential difference across the wire,
V = IR = 1.5  7.7  10-3= 11.55  10-3 V= 11.55 mV
Hence, the potential difference is 11.55 mV.
10. A 2  resistance coil is to be constructed from a constantan wire of diameter 0.315mm. If the
resistivity of constantan wire 49  10-6cm, find the length of the wire required to construct the coil.
Solution: Given,
Resistance (R) = 2 
Diameter (d) = 0.315 mm = 3.15  10-4 m
Resistivity () = 49  10-6-cm = 49  10-8m
l
Now, R =  A

d2
R
RA 4 2  3.14 (3.15  10-4)2
l = = = = 0.318m = 31.8cm
  4  49  10-8
Hence, the length of the wire is 31.8cm.
11. A tightly coiled spring having 75 coils, each 3.5 cm in diameter is made of insulated metal wire of
3.25 mm in diameter, An Ohm meter connected across its opposite ends reads 1.74 . What is the
resistivity of the metal?
Solution: Given,
Number of turns (N) = 75
Diameter of coil (D) = 3.5 cm = 3.5 × 10–2m
Diameter of wire (d) = 3.25 mm = 3.25 × 10–3m
Resistance (R) = 1.74
Length of wire (l) = DN
=  × 3.5 × 10–2 × 75 = 8.25m
We have,
d2
R×
R×A 4 1.74 × (3.25 × 10–3)2
Resistivity (ρ) = l = l =
4 × 8.25
 ρ = 1.75 × 10–6m
Hence, the resistivity is 1.75×0–6m.
12. A copper wire has a diameter of 1.02 mm, cross-sectional area 8.2×10–7m2 and resistivity 1.72 × 10–
8 –m. It carries a current 1.67A. Find the electric field in magnitude in the wire and the potential

difference between two points in the wire 50m apart.

Solution: Given,
Diameter (d) = 1.02 mm = 1.02 × 10–3m
Area (A) = 8.2 × 10–7m2
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
Resistivity (ρ) = 1.72 × 10–8–m
Current (I) = 1.67A
We have,
J = σE
I 1
or, = E
A ρ
I 1.67
or, E = × ρ = × 1.72 × 10–8 V/m= 0.203 × 10–1 V/m= 0.0203V/m
A 8.2 × 10–7
Again, we have,
V
E = l V = E × l = 0.0203 × 50 = 1.015V.
Hence, the electric field and P.D. are 0.0203V/m and 1.015V respectively.
13. An electric heating element to dissipate 480 Watts and 240 V mains is to be made from nicrome wire
of 1 mm diameter. Calculate the length of the wire required if the resistivity of nicrome is 1.1 × 10–
6Ohm meter. [NEB]
Solution: Power (P) = 480 Watt
Potential (V) = 240 V
V2 (240)2 V2
Resistance (R) = P = 480 = 120  [P =I2R = R = IV]
Resistivity (ρ) = 1.1 × 10–6 -m
Diameter (d) = 1 mm = 10–3 m
We have
d2 (10–3)2
Now, Area of cross section (A) = = = 7.85 × 10–7m2
4 4
Again,
R×A 120 × 7.85× 10–6
l= ρ = 1.1 × 10–7 = 85.6 m
 l = 85.6 m
Hence, the length of wire is 85.6 m.
14. A heating coil power rating 10W is required when the p.d. across it is 20V. Calculate the length of
nichrome wire needed to make the coil if the cross sectional area of the wire used is 1 × 10 -7m2 and
resistivity of nichrome is 1  10-6m. What length of wire would be needed if its diameter was half
that previously used?
Solution: Given,
Power (P) = 10W, Potential (V) = 20V,
Area of cross section (A) = 1 × 10-7m2 Resistivity () = 1 × 10-6m,
Length of wire (l) =?
V2
P = R
V2 20 × 20
or, R = P = 10 = 40
Let l be the required length of the nichrome wire, then
l
R =
A
R × A 40 × 10-7
l = = 10-6 = 40 × 10-1 = 4.0m

If the diameter is halved, it’s area of cross section is reduced 4 times. Hence resistance per unit length
is increased 4 times.
1th 1
Hence, the new length = of the original length = × 4 = 1.0m
4 4
 Direct Current cicuits 331

15. A potential difference of 4.5 V is applied between the ends of wire that is 2.5 m long and has radius of
0.654 mm. The resulting current through the wire is 17.6 A. What is the resistivity of the wire? [NEB]
Solution:
We have radius (r) = 0.654 mm = 0.654 × 10–3m
Potential (V) = 4.5 volt
Length (l) = 2.5 m
V
We have, I=R
V 4.5
or, R = I = 17.6 = 0.25Ω
ρl
Again, R =
A
RA
 ρ= l
The area (A) = r2 =  × (0.654 × 10–3)2 = 1.34 × 10–6m2
0.25 × 1.34 × 10–6
 ρ= = 1.34 × 10–7m.
2.5
Hence, the resistivity of wire is 1.34 × 10–7m.
16. Find the resistance of a hollow cylindrical conductor of length 1.0m and inner and outer radii 1.0 mm
and 2.0 mm respectively. The resistivity of the material is 2.0 × 10–8–m
Solution: Given,
Length (l) = 1.0m
Internal radius (r1) = 1.0mm = 1 × 10–3m
External radius (r2) = 2 .0 mm = 2 × 10–3m
Resistivity () = 2.0 × 10–8m
We have,
The area of cross-section of the conductor through which the charges will flow is
A = (r22 –r12) = (22 –12) × (10–3)2 = 3× 10–6m2
The resistance of the wire is, therefore,
l 2 × 10–8 × 1
R = A = = 2.1 × 10–3
3 × 10–6
Hence the resistance of a conductor is 2.1 × 10–3.
17. The resistance of a conductor is 10 at 50°C and 15 at 100 °C. Calculate its resistance at 0 °C.
Solution: Given,
Resistance at 50°C (R50) = 10
Resistance at 100°C (R100) = 15
Resistance at 0°C (R0) =?
We have,
R100 = R0 [1 +  (100 – 0)]
or, 15 = R0[1 + 100] …… (i)
Again,
R50 = R0 [1 + (50 – 0)]
or, 10 = R0[1 + 50] …… (ii)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
15 1 + 100 
10 = 1 + 50
or, 15 + 750 = 10 + 1000 
1
or, 250 = 5 or, =
50
Now, form equation (i)
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]

15 15 15
R0 = = = = 5
1 + 100 1 3
1 + 100 × 50
Hence, resistance at 0oC is 5.
18. An electric heater is made of nichrome wire. It is supplied electric energy by a 240V main. The current when
started at 20°C is 2A. The current goes on decreasing and finally settles at a value of 1.5A. Find the rise in
temperature, if the average temperature coefficient of nichrome is 4.5  10-4C-1.
Solution: Given,
Main voltage (E) = 240V
Initial value of current (I) = 2A
Initial temperature of wire (1) = 20°C
Temperature coefficient () = 4.5  10-4°C-1
 Initial value of resistance of nichrome wire at 1°C
E 240
R1 = = = 120
I1 2
Final value of current,
I2 = 1.5A
Let 2 be the final temperature of the wire
 Final value of resistance of nichrome wire at 2°C,
E 240
R2 = I = 1.5 = 160 
2
Now, R2 = R0[1 + (2 – 01)]
or, 160 = R0 [1 + 2] …………(i)
Again,
R1 = R0 [1 +  ( – 0)]
or, 120 = R0 [1 + 20] …………(ii)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
160 1 + 2
=
120 1 + 20
160 (1 + 20)
or, 2 = 120 –1
or, 2 = 767.4°C.
Hence, the rise in temperature is 767.4°C.
General Circuit Analysis
19. The resistance of two conductors in series is 40 and their resistance becomes 7.5 when connected in
parallel. Find the resistance of individual conductor.
Solution: Given,
Let the resistance of the two conductors be R1 and R2.
Then, Rs = R1 + R2 = 40 … (i)
R1R2
Rp = R + R = 7.5 
1 2
or, R1R2 = 7.5  (R1 + R2)
Using equation (i), we have
R1R2 = 7.5  40 = 300
Now, (R1 – R2)2 = (R1 + R2)2 – 4R1R2
= 402 – 4  300 = 400
 R1 – R2 = 20 … (ii)
Adding equations (i) and (ii), we have
2R1 = (40 + 20)Ω = 60Ω
 Direct Current cicuits 333

or, R1 = 30
Subtracting equation (ii) from (i), we have
2R2 = 40 – 20 = 20
or, R2 = 10
Hence, the resistance is 10.
20. Resistances R, 2R, 4R, 8R ......... are connected in parallel. What would be the resultant resistances?
Solution: Let, Rt be the equivalent resistance then
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ........
Rt R 2R 4R 8R 
1 1 1 1 1 a
= 1 + + + + .......  [ sum of infinite series, Sn =  ]
R 2 4 8  1-r
1 1 2
=R  1 = R
1 – 
 2
R
 Rt = 2
21. A resistor of 5 resistance is connected in series with a parallel combination of a number of resistors
each of 6. If the total resistance of the combination is 7, how many resistors are in parallel?
Solution: Given,
Let n resistors each of 6 be connected in parallel and then the combination in series with resistors of
5. Then, resistance of the parallel combination of n resistances each of 6 is given by
1 1 1 1 n
= + + +…… n times =
Rp 6 6 6 6
6
or, Rp = n 
As this parallel combination is connected in series with resistor of 5, therefore, total resistance of the
arrangement,
6
Rs = Rp + 5 = n + 5
But Rs = 7
6
 n +5=7
6
or, n = 2 or, n = 3
Hence, 3 resistances are in parallel.
22. A wire of resistance 10Ω is bent to form a complete circle. Find its resistance between two diametrically
opposite points. D
Solution: Let ABCDA be the wire of resistance 10Ω. We have to calculate the
resistance of this loop between the diametrically opposite points A and C. The
wires ADC and ABC will have resistances 5Ω each. These two are joined in parallel A C
between A and C. The equivalent resistance R between A and C is, therefore, given
5Ω × 5Ω
by, R = = 2.5Ω. B
5Ω + 5Ω
23. Find the equivalent resistance of the infinite ladder it?
Solution: Let the equivalent resistance of this infinite ladder be R. If R R R
A
we remove one branch out of the infinite ladder, circuit won't
change appreciably, as it is infinite ladder. R R R Up to 
So the given circuit can be redrawn as: B
RR' R R
So, Req = R + R + R A

R R΄

B
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
But, Req we have already assumed to be R'
RR'
So we have, R' = R + R' + R
or, R'R + R2 = R2 + R'R + R'R
or, R'2 – R'R – R2 = 0
R  R2 + 4R2
or, R' =
2
R
Therefore, R = ( 5 + 1) This is the equivalent resistance of given ladder.
2
24. Find the effective resistance between the points A and B in figure.
Solution: The resistance between AF and FE are series then total resistance = 3 + 3= 6
Again, this resistance is in parallel with 6 in AE. E 3 D
6×6
 Total resistance = = 3 3 3
6+6
This 3 resistance between A and E is series with ED F 6 6 C
6
3 + 3 = 6 and this resistance is parallel with AD. Their
3 3
equivalent between A and D
6×6 A 3 B
6 + 6 = 3
Similarly, the equivalent of this 3, DC and AC is 3. This 3 is in series with CB and the
combination is in parallel with AB. The equivalent resistance between A and B is therefore,
6×3
6 + 3 = 2.
25. Find the equivalent resistance between two points in the given circuit.

A 5Ω 5Ω B
5Ω 10Ω B
5Ω
5Ω 5Ω 5Ω
10Ω 5Ω
5Ω (b) 5Ω
(a) A
7V
Solution:
(a) To find equivalent resistance of this type of circuit we can use submission rule

Note: If the wheat stone bridge R1 R2

is not balanced, then equivalent A B ∑ (R2R1+R1Rs+RsR3+R3R4)
resistance can be obtained by Rs RAB= =
> (R1+Rs)+(Rs+R3)
using submission rule
R3 R4

Using this rule in given circuit,

∑ (10×5 +5×5 +5×10 +10×5)
Req = = =7Ω
> (5+5+5+10)
(b) The complex circuit in problem (b) can be simplified as
below. This is also the circuit like in (a) to find A 5Ω 10Ω B
5Ω
equivalent resistance, we can use submission rule. Then,
equivalent resistance is, 10Ω 5Ω
∑ (10×5 +5×5 +5×10 +10×5)
Req = > = (5+5+5+10) =7Ω
26. Twelve wires each of resistance r ohm are connected in the form of a skeleton cube. Find the
equivalent resistance of the cube, when the current enters at one corner and leaves at the diagonally
opposite corner.
 Direct Current cicuits 335

Solution: Consider a skeleton cube ABCDEGH made of 12 wires as shown in I

the figure. Suppose the current I enters at point A. Through each of E 3 F I
I
I 6
wires AB, AH and AD, current equal to 3 will flow in accordance with I
3
I C I
current will divide in three equal parts, as resistance of the three wires 6 I 3
are also equal, At points B, D and H, current will divide in two equal 6 I
I I
6 6
I 3 H
parts of 6 each as shown. At point F, diagonally opposite to point A, the G
I I
current equal to I will flow out. 3 6
A I B
3
Consider any closed path such as ABGF between points A and F, then
V = P.D across AB + P.D across BG + P.D. across GF
I I I 5I
= r + r + r= r …..(i)
3 6 3 6
If R is effective resistance of the skeleton cube
Then, V = IR ............. (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
5I
IR = 6 r
5
or, R =6r
27. (i) Find the effective resistance of the circuit, (ii) Find the total
current in the circuit, (iii) Find the p.d. across R1 and (iv) R1=1Ω
Current through R2. R3=3.2Ω
c R2=4Ω
a b
Solution: The combined resistance of R1 and R2, Rab is given by
R4=12Ω
1 1 1 1 1 5 e f
Rab = R1 + R2 = 1 + 4 = 4
+ -
4
or, Rab= 5 = 0.8
V=6V
The combined resistance of Rab and R3,
Rcb = Rab + R3
= 0.8 + 3.2 = 4.0
(i) The effective resistance R is given by
1 1 1
R = Rcb + R4
1 1 3+1 1
= 4 + 12 = 12 = 3
or, R = 3
(ii) The total current in the circuit,
V 6
I = = = 2A
R 3
V 6V
(iii) The current through the branch cb = R = = 1.5A
cb 4
 p.d. across ab, Vab = Icb  Rab
= 1.5  0.8 = 1.2V
 p.d across R1 = Vab = 1.2V
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
Vab 1.2V
(iv) Current through R2 = R = = 0.3A
2 4
28. What is potential difference across 100 Ω resisters in the circuit given below? [NEB]
Solution: Equivalent resistance between 100Ω and 50Ω in parallel combination.
1 1 1
= + 
RP 100 50 100Ω
100 × 50
Then, R' = 100 + 50 = 33.33Ω
I 500Ω
Total resistance in circuit 2 50Ω
R + -
100×50
R =  150 + 500 ∴ R = 533.33 Ω V=12V
 
V 12V
Now, Current (I) = R = 533.33 = 0.0225 A
50
Current through 100Ω is, I100Ω = 50+100 ×0.0225 A= 7.5×10-3 A
 
The potential difference along 100 Ω isV1 = I100Ω×R100 = 7.5×10-3 × 100 = 0.75V
29. In given figure, the current through the 3Ω resistor is 0.8A. Find the potential drop across 4Ω
resistor.
Solution:
Let, R1 = 3Ω R2 = 6Ω R3 = 4Ω 3 Ω 0.8A
Potential across 3Ω is V1 and 6 Ω resistance is V2 also, V1=V2 and 4Ω
current along 6 Ω is I2, and 6 is then
or, I1R1 = I2R2 I
6Ω

or, 0.8×3 = 6×I2 = I2 = 0.4 A

Then potential across 6Ω = 6×0.4 = 2.4V
V
Then current through 4 Ω resistance is (0.8+0.4) A = 1.2 A
Then,
Potential across 4 Ω is = 1.2×4 = 4.8 V
30. Two resistors are connected in parallel and third resistor be connected in series with the combination
of a parallel resistors. If this combination be connected with a battery of R1
the negligible internal resistance, find the potential difference across each A B
resistor. I R 3
Solution: Given, R2
+ -
Let us consider two resistors R1 and R2 be connected in parallel between
points A and B and third resistor R3 be connected in series with the V
combination of parallel resistors. This combination be connected with a battery of negligible internal
resistance (r = 0) and with e.m.f. V.
The equivalent resistance between A and B
R1R2
RAB =
R1 + R2
R1R2 R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
Total resistance of the circuit, Rt = RAB + R3 = + R3 =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Total current through the circuit,
V (R1 + R2)V
I=R =R R +R R +R R
t 1 2 2 3 3 1

Potential difference across R1 or R2, [ p.d is same in parallel combination]

 Direct Current cicuits 337

(R1 + R2)V R1R2

VAB = IRAB = R R + R R + R R × R + R
1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2

(R1R2)V
=
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
Potential difference across R3
(R1 + R2)VR3 (R2R3 + R3R1)V
= IR3 = =
R1R2 + R2R3 + R1R3 R1R2 + R2R3 + R1R3
These are the potential difference along each resistance.
31. Consider the figure below. The current through 6Ω resistor is 4A in the direction shown. What are the currents
through the 25Ω and 20Ω resistors? [NEB]
4 A 6Ω
Solution: 25Ω
P.D along 6 = P.D. along 8
or, 4 × 6 = I2 × 8 8Ω
20Ω
 I2 = 3A
Then total current (I) = I1 + I2 = (4 +3) A= 7A
Current through 25 is 7A V
48
Total potential in upper branch is V1 (along 6 and 4 is same) = 7 × = 24 Volt
14
V2 (along 25) = 7 × 25 = 175 Volt
V = V1 + V2 = 175 + 24 = 199 Volt.
Then total potential in upper branch is equal to P.D. along 20 since they are in parallel.
 V = I' × 20
V 199
 I' = = = 9.95A
20 20
32. A resistance of 1000ohm and 2000 ohm are placed in series with a 100V supply. What will be the
reading on a voltmeter of internal resistance 5000ohm when placed across (i) the 1000ohm resistance
and (ii) the 2000ohm resistance?
Solution: Given,
Resistance (R1) = 1000  100V
100v
Resistance (R2) = 2000 
1000 2000
Combined resistance of 1000 and the voltmeter a b c

resistance, Rab is given by the relation.

1 1 1 5+1
or, R = 1000 + 5000 = 5000 vR = 5000
ab
5000
or, Rab = 6 
5000
 Total resistance in circuit = Rab + R2 =  6 + 2000
 
V 100 100  6
 Current in the circuit I = R + R  =
 ab 2 5000 + 2000 = 17000
 6 
p.d. across 1000 = Vab = IRab
600 5000
=  = 29.4V
17000 6
When the voltmeter is connected across 2000 100v
100V
1 1 1 5+2 7
Rbc = 2000 + 5000 = 10000 = 10000
1000 2000
a b c

10000
Rbc = 7 
v R = 5000
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
V 100 700
I = 1000 + R =
 bc  10000 + 1000 = 170000
 7 
700 10000
p.d. across 2000 = IRbc =  = 58.8V
17000 7
Hence, the potential difference along 1000 and 2000 are 29.4V and 58.8V.
33. In the given circuit, calculate the potential difference between the points B and D.
Solution: Given,
6Ω B 12Ω
Resistance of path ABC is =18 Ω A C
Similarly, resistance of path of ADC = 18 Ω
Equivalent resistance (R) = 18||18 = 9 Ω
12Ω D 6Ω
Now current due to 6 V battery.
6V 6 2
I= R =9A=3A
6V
Here, the resistance of both branches are same So in fig current
2 1 1
through ABC path is equal to ADC path which is equal to = 3 ×2 A = 3 A
1
VAB = 3 ×6 = 2 V
i.e. VB–VA = 2 V ….. (i)
Again,
1
VAD = VD–VA = 3 ×12 = 4 V ….. (ii)
Now, equation (ii) – equation (i)
VD–VA–VB+VA = (4–2)V
VD–VB=2 V
VBD=2V
∵ Potential across B and D is 2V.
E.M.F & Internal Resistance (Circuit Analysis)
34. A cell of emf 18 V has an internal resistance of 3 Ω. The terminal p.d. of the circuit becomes 15 V when
connected by a wire. Find the resistance of the wire. [NEB]
Solution: We have,
E = IR + Ir
E = V + Ir
E–V
or, =I
r
18 – 15
And, I= 3 = 1A
V 15
 R = I = 1 = 15

35. Find the current through a wire of resistance 2 connected across a cell of e.m.f. 1.5V and internal
resistance 1.
Solution: Given,
E.m.f. (E) = 1.5V
Internal resistance (r) = 1
External resistance (R) = 2
E 1.5
Now, we have current (I) = = = 0.5A
R+r 2+1
Hence, the current through the wire is 0.5A.
 Direct Current cicuits 339

36. A battery has an e.m.f of 45V and an internal resistance of 10Ω. What current is supplied when it is
connected to a 24 Ω resistor? What is the potential difference across the battery?
Solution: Given, E
10
 E   45 
Current (I) = = = 1.32A
R + r 24 +10  0.4
p.d. across the battery,
V = IR = 1.32  24 = 31.68V 24

Hence, the potential difference across the battery is 31.68V.

37. A battery of e.m.f. 2V and internal resistance 0.5 is connected across a resistance of 9.5. How
many electrons cross through a cross-section of the resistance in 1 second? [NEB]
Solution: Given,
e.m.f. (E) = 2V Internal resistance (r) = 0.5
External resistance (R) = 9.5 Time (t) = 1 sec
We have,
E = IR + Ir
E 2
 Current (I) = R + r = 0.5 + 9.5 = 0.2A
   
Again,
q ne
I= =
t t
It 0.5 × 1
n = e = 1.6 × 10–19 = 1.25 × 1018.
Then, the number of electrons crossing through a conductor is 1.25 × 1018.
38. When the switch s is open the voltmeter V connected across the terminals of the dry cell in fig. reads
1.52V. When the switch is closed the voltmeter reading drops to 1.37V and ammeter (A) reads 2.5A.
Find the e.m.f internal resistance and external resistance.
Solution: Given,
As e.m.f. measured in open circuit,
E.m.f. (E) = 1.52V E
Similarly, as terminal P.D is measured in closed circuit, r
Terminal p.d. (V) = 1.37V
Current (I) = 1.5A A
k
We have,
V = IR R
V 1.37
R = I = 1.5 = 0.91
Again we have,
E = V + Ir
or, 1.52 = 1.37 + 1.5r
or, r = 0.1
Hence, the internal resistance is 0.1.
39. The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.5V when there is a current of 3A in the
battery from the negative to the positive terminal when the current is 2A in the reverse direction, the
potential difference becomes 11V. Determine the e.m.f and the internal resistance of the battery.
Solution: Let E be the e.m.f. and r be the internal resistance of the battery.
In the 1st case, the battery supplies current to the external circuit.
Hence, V = E – Ir
or, 8.5 = E – 3r …….(i)
In the second case, the current is supplied to the battery.
Hence, V = E + Ir
or, 11 = E + 2r ……..(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii)
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
2.5 = 5r
2.5
or, r= = 0.5
5
From (1)
E = 8.5 + 3r
= 8.5 + 3  0.5 = 10V
Hence, the internal resistance and E.m.f. of cell are 0.5 and 10V respectively.
40. A battery of e.m.f. 1.5V has a terminal P.D of 1.25V when a resistor of 25 joined to it. Calculate the
current flowing, internal resistance and terminal P.D.
When a resistance of 10 replace 25 resistors. E=1.5V E=1.5V [NEB]
r=? r=?
Solution: Given,
E.m.f. (E) = 1.5 V R=25Ω R=10Ω
Resistance (R) = 25
Terminal p.d. (V) = 1.25V V V
Now,
1.25
V = IR or, I = 25 = 0.05A
E – V 1.5 – 1.25
or, E= V + Ir or, r = I = 0.05 = 5
New current,
E 1.5 1.5
I = R +r or, I = 10 + 5 = 15
or, I = 0.1A
Again V = IR = 0.1  10 = 1V
Hence, the internal resistance is 5 and terminal p.d. is 1V.
41. Two resistors, R1 = 50 and R2 = 40 are placed in series with an accumulator of e.m.f. 5.0Volts and
internal resistance 20ohm. A voltmeter of resistance 1000 is connected across R1. What percent error
is made in reading the potential difference across R1.
Solution: Before the voltmeter is connected E=5v
Current through the circuit r=20
E 5 5
I = = = A
R1 + R2 + r 50 +40 + 20 110 R1 R2
p.d. across R1, a
50 b 40
5 25
V1 = IR= 110  50 = 11 V = 2.27V
Rv = 1000
When the voltmeter is connected across R1
1 1 1 20 + 1
Rab = 50 + 1000 = 1000
1000
or, Rab = 21 
Current in the circuit,
E 5 105
I' = R + R + r = 1000 = 2260 A
ab 2
21 + 40 + 20
p.d. across R1,
105 1000 250
V1 = I'Rab = 2260  21 = 113 = 2.21 V
 Percentage error
V1 – V'1 2.27 – 2.21
=  100 =  100 = 2.64
V1 2.27
 Direct Current cicuits 341

Hence, the percentage error is 2.64.

42. A cell of e.m.f 1.5V and internal resistance 1 sends a current through wires of resistance 6 and 12
connected in parallel. Find the current through each wire.
Solution: Given,
E.m.f. (E) = 1.5V Internal resistance (r) = 1
Resistances (R1) = 6 Resistances (R2) = 12
E=1.5v
Let, R be resistance of the parallel combination of R1 and R2. Then
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2 r= 1
I
R1R2
or, R =
R1 + R2 I1 R1= 6
6  12 72
or, R = 6 + 12 = 18 = 4 I2
R2= 12
Let I be the current in main circuit. Then,
E 1.5
I = = = 0.3A
R + r 4 + 1
Potential difference across the parallel combination of R1 and R2
V = IR = 0.3  4 = 1.2volt
V 1.2
Current through R1 (I1) = = = 0.2A
R1 6
V 1.2
Current through R2 (I2) = = = 0.1A
R2 2
Hence, the current through the resistance R1 and R2 are 0.2A and 0.1A respectively.
43. A cell of internal resistance 0.2 is connected to two coils of resistance 6.0 and 8.0 joined in
parallel. There is a current of 0.2A in the 8.0 coil. Find the e.m.f of the cell.
Solution: Given, 6Ω
Internal resistance (r) = 0.2 I1
Voltage across 6 = Voltage across 8
I1  6.0 = I2  8.0 I2= 0.2A
I 8Ω
0.2  8 0.8
or, I1 = = A = 0.27A r=0.2Ω
6 3
Total current in the circuit, I
E
= I1 + I2 = 0.27 + 0.2= 0.47A
Combined resistance of 6 and 8 , R is given by
1 1 1 4+3
R = 6 + 8 = 24
24
or, R = = 3.4
7
E
Again, Current (I) =
R+r
or, E = I(R + r) = 0.47 (3.4 + 0.2) = 1.69V
Hence, the e.m.f. of a cell is 1.69V.
44. The galvanometer G has a resistance of 20. The terminals XY are connected to a thermopile
generating an e.m.f. of 0.50V with an internal resistance of 20. Calculate current flowing in the
galvanometer (i) when the switch S is in position A. (ii) when the switch S is in position B.
Calculate the potential difference across the terminals of the thermopile (iii) when the switch S is in
position A. (iv) when the switch is in the position B.
Solution: A B
(i) When the switch is in position A. S 20

x 10 y
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
E.m.f .(E) = 0.5V
Internal resistance (r) = 20
Resistance of galvanometer (Rg) = 20
E 0.5
Now, I = R + r = 20 +20 = 0.0125A = 12.5mA
g
(ii) When the switch is in position B, the combined resistance of the galvanometer and 20, R' is
given by
1 1 1 2 1
= + = =
R' 20 20 20 10
or, R' = 10
Total ext. resistance R = 10 + R'
= (10 + 10) = 20
E 0.5
I = R + r = 20 + 20 = 0.0125A
S 20
Current through the galvanometer Ig = G + S I = 0.0125  20 + 20 = 0.00625A = 6.25mA
   
(iii) When the switch is in position A
V = IR= 0.0125  20 = 0.25V
(iv) When the switch is in position B
V = IR= 0.0125  20= 0.25 V
45. A battery of e.m.f 24V and internal resistance r is connected to a circuit having two parallel resistors
of 3 and 6 in series with an 8 resistor. The current flowing in the 3 resistor is then
0.8A.Calculate (i) the current in the 6 resistor (ii) internal resistance (iii) the terminal p.d. of the
battery
Solution: Given, I1 3
(i) p.d. across 6 = p.d across 3 I 8
I1  6 = I1 3
3 3 I2 6
I2 = I1  6 = 0.8  6 = 0.4A
(ii) The combination resistance of 3 and 6, R is given by E=24V
1 1 1 2 +1 1
= + = =
R 3 6 6 2
R = 2
Total external resistance R = R' + 8 = (2 + 8)Ω= 10
Then total resistance in a circuit = 10 + r
Total current in the circuit I = I1 + I2 = (0.8 + 0.4) A = 1.2A
E
 I=
R+r
24
or 1.2 = 10 + r
or, 12 + 1.2r = 24
24 – 12
or, r = 1.2 = 10
(iii) Terminal p.d. V = IR = 1.2  10 = 12V
Hence, the internal resistance and terminal p.d. difference are 10 and 12V respectively
46. A battery of e.m.f of 4V and internal resistance 2 is joined to a resistor of 8. Calculate the
terminal p.d. What additional resistance in series with the 8 resistor would produce a terminal p.d
of 3.6V?
Solution: Given, E=4V
E.m.f. (E) = 4V r=2
Internal resistance (r) = 2

R=8
 Direct Current cicuits 343

External resistance (R) = 8

E 4
Current (I) = R + r = 2 + 8 A= 0.4A
V (terminal p.d.) = IR = 0.4  8= 3.2V
Let X be the resistance to be added in series with the 8 resistor to produce the terminal p.d of 3.6V,
then
E 4 E=4V
I = =
8 + X + 2 10 + X r=2
Again,
V = I(8 + X)
4 X R=8
or, 3.6 = (8 + X)
10 + X
or, 36 + 3.6X = 32 +4X
4
 X = 0.4 = 10
Hence, the external resistance is 10.
47. A battery is known to have an e.m.f. of 5.0V but when a certain voltmeter is connected to it the
reading is 4.9V. The battery can deliver a current of 0.40A when connected to a resistance of 12ohm.
What is the resistance of the voltmeter?
Solution: Given, E=45V
Let r be the internal resistance of the battery r=10
With resistance 12 in the circuit,
Terminal potential difference (V) = 4.9 V
E.m.f. (E) = 5V
Current (I) = 0.4A R=24
Resistance (R) = 12
E
Now, I =R+r
5
or 0.4 = 12 + r
or, 4.8 + 0.4r = 5
or, 0.4r = 5 – 4.8
0.2
or, r = = 0.5
0.4
When the voltmeter of resistance RV is joined to the battery
E 5 Rv
The current in the circuit I= R + r = R + 0.5
v v
But terminal p.d. = IRV
E 5
or, 4.9 =  RV =  Rv
Rv + 0.5 Rv + 0.5
or, 4.9RV + 2.45 = 5 RV
or, 2.45 = 0.1RV
or, RV = 24.5
48. A battery of e.m.f. 24V is used to supply current through the
combination of three resistors R1, R2 and R3 as shown below: k
R1=6Ω
When the key K is closed, the current 5 resistor is found to be I = R3=5Ω I1
3A. (a) Find the internal resistance of the cell and the currents I 1 and
I2 through the resistors R1 and R2. (b) What current will flow in the I2
I=3A R2=3Ω
circuit, if the key is opened?
(a) On closing the key: r=?

E=24 V
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
Let, Rp be resistance of the parallel combination of R1 and R2. Then,
R1R2 63
Rp = = Ω= 2
R1 + R2 6 + 3
Let, r be internal resistance of the battery. Then total of the circuit, R = R3 + Rp + r
or, R = 5 + 2 + r = 7 + r
E
 I =
R
Here, E.m.f. (E) = 24V and Current (I) = 3A
24
 3 = 7 + r or, 7 + r = 8 or, r = 1
Now, potential difference across parallel combination of R1 and R2
V = I  Rp = 2  3 = 6V
V 6 V 6
Therefore, I1 = R = 6 = 1A I2 = R = 3 = 2A
1 2
(b) On opening the key:
Total resistance of the circuit
R' = R2 + R3 + r = (3 + 2 +1) Ω = 6
Therefore, current in the circuit,
E 24
I' = R' = 6 A= 4A
Hence, the internal resistance and current are 1 and 4A respectively.
49. Using the graph in the figure (a) and figure (b), calculate the V out, when light intensity is 60 lux.
Solution: Given,
Resistance, R = 3 kΩ
From the given graph, resistance of LDR 100
at 60 lux is,
Resistance, R (kΩ)

80 3.0 kΩ
RLDR = 20 kΩ
Using potential division rule, potential 60
10V
across LDR at 60 lux is, 40
RLDR  Vout
Vout =  R
 LDR +R Vin
20

20
Vout =  20+3 ×10 V
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
or,
 
Light intensity (lux)

 Vout = 8.7 V
50. The wire in strain gauge when unstretched has length of 10 cm and resistance 120 Ω. When
the wire is stretched by 0.10 cm, the resistance becomes 122.4 Ω. The strain gauge is
connected in the circuit as in figure. What is the change in length of the wire when the
output voltage is 5.06 V?
Solution: Given,
Resistance, R = 120Ω R = 120 Ω
Vin = 10 V

Input voltage, Vin = 10 V

Output voltage, Vo = 5.06 V
Vo =5.06 V

Original length, l = 10 cm Strain

gauge
Change in length, Δl = 0.10 cm
New resistance, R' = 122.4 Ω
Change in length when output voltage is 5.60 V =?
We know that, potential division rule, When potential across strain gauge is
5.06 V, the potential across resistor
120
Vo' = 120+R  ×Vin
is, Vo ' = (10 - 5.06) V = 4.94 V
 s
 Direct Current cicuits 345

120
or, 4.94 = 120+R  ×10
 s

or, Rs = 122.9 Ω
The resistance of wire is increased by (122.9 -120) Ω = 2.9 Ω. Since ΔR Δl and an increase in
length of 0.10 cm when resistance increased by 2.4 Ω, so length has increased by:
2.9
2.4 ×0.1 = 0.12 cm [using unitary method]
Hence, length is increased by 0.12 cm, when output voltage is 5.06 V.
51. An NTC thermistor is used in the circuit as shown in figure. The supply has an emf of 10 V and
negligible internal resistance. The resistance of thermistor changes from 20 kΩ at 20 oC to 100 Ω
at 60oC. Calculate the output voltage Vo at these two
temperatures.
R = 1kΩ
Solution: Given,

Vin = 10 V
Resistance, R = 1kΩ
Input voltage, Vin = 10 V
Output voltages, Vo and Vo' at two temperatures =?

Vo
Thermistor
Resistance of thermistor at 20 oC is, R = 20 kΩ
Resistance of thermistor at 60 oC is, R' = 100 Ω
1 case, using potential division rule,
st

20
Vo = 20+1 ×10 V = 9.5 V
 
2nd case,
100
Vo' = 1000+100×10 V = 0.9 V
 
Hence, output voltages are 9.5 V and 0.9 V respectively at two temperatures.
52. In the circuit given below, a potential difference of 3V is required across the points A and B.
Calculate the value of the resistance R1. I
Solution: Given,
E.m.f. (E) = 12V
R2=8Ω
Resistance (R2) = 8
A
Internal resistance (r) = 1
E=12V

r=1Ω
The current in the circuit is given by
R1 3V
E
I= 
R1 + R2 + r  B
Potential difference across the points A and B
IR1 = 3
ER1
or, R + R + r = 3
 1 2 
12R1 
 
R1 + R2 +r = 3
or, 4R1 = R1 + 9
or, R1 = 3
Hence, the value of resistance is 3.
53. Two cells, E1 and E2 of emfs 4 V and 8 V having internal resistances 0.5Ω and 1Ω respectively are
connected in opposition to each other. This combination is connected in opposition to with resistance
of 4.5Ω and 3Ω. Another resistance of 6Ωis connected in parallel across the 3Ω resistor. (a) Draw the
circuit diagram (b) Calculate the total current flowing through the circuit. (c) Terminal potential
difference across cell E1 and E2.
Solution: Given, emf of 1st cell (E1) = 4 V
E1 E2
Emf of 2nd cell (E2) = 8 V
Internal resistance of 1 cell (r1) = 0.5Ω
st 4V 0.5Ω 1Ω 8V
Internal resistance of 2nd cell (r2) = 1Ω
I
4.5Ω 3Ω I
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
External resistance (R) = 8 Ω
Terminal potential across E1 (V1) =?
Terminal potential across E2 (V2) =?
Total current (I) =?
3×6
Equivalent resistance of 3Ωand 6Ω, R΄eq= = 2Ω
3+6
Equivalent resistance of 4.5 Ω and 2Ω, = (4.5 +2) = 6.5 Ω
Total resistance, (R) = (6.5 +0.5 +1) = 8Ω
Effective emf (Eeff) = ( 8- 4) V = 4 V
Eeff 4
Total current (I) = R = 8 A =0.5 A
Terminal potential across E1 (V1) = E1+ Ir1 = (4 -0.5×0.5) V = 4.25 V (charging)
Terminal potential across E2 (V2) = E2- Ir2 = (8 -0.5×1) V = 7.5 V (discharging)
54. Two cells of emf 4 V and 2 V and internal resistance 2 Ω and 1 Ω respectively are connected in parallel so as
to send the current in the same direction through an external resistance of 10 Ω. Find the potential difference
across 10 Ω resistors.
Solution:
E1=2V r1=1Ω
Given, emf of 1st cell (E1) = 4 V Eeq
Emf of 2nd cell (E2) = 2 V req
Internal resistance of 1st cell (r1) = 2Ω
r =2Ω I
Internal resistance of 2nd cell (r2) = 1Ω E2=4V 2 I
External resistance (R) = 8 Ω 10Ω
Potential across, R (V) =? R = 10Ω
r1r2 1×2 2
Equivalent internal resistance (req) = r +r = 1+2 = 3 Ω
1 2

E1 E2 4 2 2 8
Equivalent emf cells (Eeq) =
 r1 + r2  req = 2+1 ×3 = 3 V
R 10  8
Now potential across, R (V) = R+ r  Eeq =  × = 2.5V
 eq 10+2  3
 3
Hence, terminal potential difference is 2.5 V.
55. A letter A is constructed of a uniform wire of resistance 1/cm. The sides of the letter are 20cm long
and the cross piece in the middle is 10cm long while the apex angle is 60°. Find the current flowing
through the different parts, when a battery of e.m.f 15V and internal resistance 3.33 is connected
across the two ends of the legs.
Solution:
The letter A is formed of a uniform wire as shown in figure. As apex
angle is 60° and cross piece QS is in the middle of the two legs PR R
and RT, therefore 60°

PQ = QR = RS = ST = QS = 10cm R2 R3
Because the wire has a resistance of 1 /cm, therefore
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = 10 Q S
The resistance of the part of the letter between Q and S is made of R5
the resistance the triangular of part QRS (R2 and R3 in series and QS
R1 R4
in parallel). If R resistance of this part, then
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = +
R R5 R2 + R3 10 10 + 10 10 20 P r=3.33 T
20
or, R = 
3
If R is the resistance of the letter between the two ends PT of the E=15V
legs, then
20 80
R = R1 + R + R4 = 10 + 3 + 10 = 3
 Direct Current cicuits 347

Let I be the current flowing through the main circuit

E 15 15
Then, Current (I) = = = = 0.5A
R + r 26.67 + 3.33 30
P.D. across the part triangular QRS,
20 10
V = I  Rp = 0.5  = V
3 3
10
V 3 1
 Current through QRS = = = A = 0.167A
R2 + R3 10 + 10 6
10
V 3 1
Current through QS = R = 10 = 3 A = 0.333A
5
Current through PQ or ST = I = 0.5A
Hence, the current along QS, PQ or ST are 0.333A and 0.5A respectively
Electrical Power
56. An electric lamp is rated as 220V–100W. What is its electric resistance? What power does it consume
if it is used in a circuit of 110V?
Solution: Given,
Power (P) = 100W Potential difference (V) = 220V
We have,
V2
P= R
V2 220  220
or, R = P =
100 = 484
If it used in a circuit of 110V
V2 110  110
Power consumed (P) = R =
484 = 25W
Hence, the power consumed by circuit is 25W.
57. The maximum power dissipated in a 10,000 resistor is 1W. What is the maximum current?
Solution: Given,
Resistance (R) = 10,000
Maximum power (Pmax) = 1W
Pmax = I2maxR
Pmax
 I2max = R

Pmax 1
 Imax = = = 0.01 A
R 10000
Hence, the maximum current is 0.01 A.
58. Two heating coils A and B, connected in parallel in a circuit, produce powers of 12W and 24W
RA
respectively. What is the ratio of their resistances R when used?
B
Solution: Given,
A and B are connected in parallel, the same voltage is applied across them
V2
PA = …. (i)
RA
V2
PB = R …. (ii)
B
Dividing (ii) by (i)
PB RA
=
PA RB
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]
RA PB 24
or, RB = PA = 12 = 2
or, RA : RB = 2:1 Hence, the ratio of resistance is 2:1.
59. A person used a 1500watt heater for 4 hours a day on the average. Find the cost of running it for one
month at the rate of Rs.1.50 per unit?
Solution: Given,
Total no. of hours used = 4  30 hours
Energy consumed in a month = 1500  4  30 watt hours = 180 kilowatt hours
 Required cost = 180  Rs.1.50 = Rs. 270.00
60. An electric lamp has a resistance of 400 ohm. It is connected to supply mains of 220V. If the price of
electric energy is 80 paisa per kWh. Calculate the cost of lighting the lamp per 10 hours?
Solution: Given,
Energy consumed in 10 hours
V2 220  220
t =  10
R 400
= 11  11  10 = 1210 watt hours
= 1.21 kilowatt hours
 Required cost = 1.21  80 = 96.80 = Rs. 97.
61. Two lamps rated as 25W–220V and 100W–220C are joined in series and connected to 200V mains.
What powers are consumed by the lamps?
Solution: Given,
For the 1st lamp,
Power (P1) = 25V Voltage (V1) = 220V
We have,
V12 220  220
R1 = P = = 1936
1 25
For the 2nd lamp,
Power (P2) = 100W Voltage (V2) = 220V
Again, we have,
V22 220  220
R2 = P = 100 = 484
2
When two lamps are connected in series and joined to 220V mains, the current in the circuit, I is
given by
V 220
Current (I) = R + R = 1936 + 484 = 0.0091A
1 2
 Power consumed by the 1st lamp
= I2R1 = (0.091)2  1936= 16W
Power consumed by 2nd lamp
= I2R2 = (0.091)2  4848 = 4W
Hence, the power consumed by 1st and 2nd lamp is 16W and 4W respectively.
62. Two bulbs rated 40W, 200V and 60W, 200V are joined in series and supplied by a 200V main line find
the power consumed by each bulb.
Solution: Given, 40W 60W
Power (P1) = 40W
Power (P2) = 60W
Potential difference (V) = 200V
The resistance of 40 W bulb, 200V 200V
V2 (200)2
R1 = = = 1000
R 40
or, R1 = 1000
Similarly the resistance of 60 W bulb, 200V
 Direct Current cicuits 349

(200)2
R2 = = 666.67
60
V
Current in the circuit I =
R1 + R2
200
or, I = = 0.12A
1000 + 666.67
Power consumed by 40W bulb
P1 = I2R1 = (0.12)2  1000 = 14.47W
Power consumed by 60W bulb,
P2 = I2R2 = (0.12)2  666.67 = 9.6W
Hence, the powers developed are 14.47watts and 9.6watts respectively
63. An electric immersion heater takes 10mins to warm 5 liters of water from 20°C to 60°C. Neglecting
any heat losses, calculate (i) the power of the heater in watts (ii) the cost of using the heater for 2
hours at Rs. 1.50 per kilowatt hour.
Solution: Given,
Mass of 5 litres of water = 5kg
Heat energy supplied to the water in 10mins
= mcΔ = 5  4200(60 – 20) = 5  4200  40 J
Energy supply 5  4200  40
(i)  Power (P) = = = 1400W
Time 10  60
(ii) Energy consumed in 2 hours = P  t = 1400  2 = 2.8
 The required cost = 2.8  Rs.1.50 = Rs.4.20
64. The temperature of 0.3kg of paraffin oil in a vacuum flask rises 1.0°C per minute with an immersion
heater of 12.3watts input. On repeating with 0.4kg of oil the temperature rises by 1.20°C per minute
for an input of 19.2 watts. Find the specific heat capacity of the oil and the thermal capacity of the
flask.
Solution: Here, Let CP is the sp. heat capacity of paraffin oil and Cf be the thermal capacity of the flask.
In the 1st case,
(m1CP + Cf)  = P1t1
or, (0.3CP + Cf) 1 = 12.3  60
or, 0.3CP + Cf = 12.3  60 …(i)
In the 2nd case,
(m2CP + Cf)  = P2t2
or, (0.4CP + Cf)  1.2 = 19.2  60
19.2  60
or, 0.4CP + Cf = 1.2 = 16  60 …..(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii)
0.1CP= 3.7  60 = 222
 CP = 2220 J/kg K
Putting the value of c in (i)
CP = 12.3  60 – 0.3  2220 = 738 – 666 = 72Jkg–k-1
Hence, the specific heat capacity of oil is 72Jkg–k-1.
Additional problems of General Circuit Analysis
1. The network of resistors is shown in adjoining figure. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

3Ω 3Ω 8Ω
A 3Ω
3Ω
6Ω 16Ω
20Ω
3Ω 3Ω
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω 16Ω
3Ω 9Ω B
A
(a) B A B
3Ω (b) 3Ω 6Ω
18Ω (c)
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]

5Ω
3Ω
C 4Ω
A B A
2R I D R A B
5Ω 5Ω 5Ω 7Ω
2R
(d) B
(e) 5Ω 6Ω
8Ω
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω
3Ω 3Ω (f)
3Ω
2Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
B 1Ω
A A
3Ω
3Ω 3Ω 8Ω 8Ω
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω 4Ω
(g) B
2Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
(h)
A
4Ω 4Ω R
R R R R R R
2Ω 4Ω 2Ω R
4Ω 4Ω B
B A R R
4Ω R R R
4Ω (i) R R R
(j)

5Ω R
5Ω
R R R R
A R R
5Ω 5Ω B
5Ω
A B R
R R
5Ω R
(k) 5Ω
R (l)
Answers:
R 14
(a) = 2Ω (b) = 3.6Ω (c) = 8Ω (d) = Ω (e) = 5 Ω (f) = Ω
2 3
40 4R
(g) = 9Ω (h) = 8 Ω (i) = Ω (j) = 4R Ω (k) = 23.33 Ω (l) = Ω
9 5
2. Find the potential difference between points A and B of the following figure
5Ω 5Ω
4 A B
Answer = V
3 2V
5Ω 5Ω

D 5Ω C
5Ω

3. Find the total current supplied to the circuit in given figure.

A
30Ω 2Ω
30Ω 2V 6V 3Ω 15V 2Ω 7Ω
6 6Ω 1Ω
30Ω 0.5Ω
Ω
1.5Ω B
(a) (b) 8Ω (c) 10Ω
1
Answers: (a) = A (b) = 4A (c) = 1A
10
 Direct Current cicuits 351

4. What is the equivalent resistance of the circuit, also find 2Ω

4V, 1Ω
ammeter and voltmeter reading? 2Ω
2Ω A

Answers, = 8Ω, 0.5 A, 2 V 4Ω

A
V
2Ω 3Ω

5. A current of 2 A is follows in the system of conductors as shown. Find the 2A

C
potential difference between two points A and B. D
3Ω 2Ω
B
Answers, = + 1V 6Ω 6Ω 6Ω
6. Resistances of 6Ω each are connected in the manner shown 0.5A 6Ω
in adjoining figure. Find the potential difference between Q
P
points P and Q, if current of 0.5 A is flowing through the
6Ω 6Ω
circuit.
4Ω 6Ω
Answers, = 3V
7. Four resistances are connected in a circuit in the given figure. Find
the electric current flowing through 4Ω and 6Ω resistance. 4Ω 6Ω

20V 1Ω A 3Ω
3Ω
Answers, = 2 A, 2A
8. A battery of emf 10 V is connected to an arrangement of resistors as 3Ω B 1Ω
shown in figure. Find the potential difference between two points A
and B.
10V
4Ω A 2Ω
Answers, = 2 V 1Ω

9. In the circuit given below, the cell has an emf 10 V and internal 2Ω B 4Ω
resistance 1 Ω. The other resistances are shown in figure. Find the
r = 1Ω
potential difference between two points A and B.
E=10V
3Ω
Answers, = - 2 V

10. In the given figure current flows through 3Ω resistor is 0.8 A. Find the potential 4Ω
6Ω
across 4Ω resistor. + -

R
Answers, = 4.8 V 10Ω
10Ω 10Ω
11. For what value of R the net resistance of the circuit will be 18Ω
A
B
10Ω 10Ω 10Ω

Answers, = 16 Ω B
12. In the network shown in figure, each of the resistance is equal to 2 Ω. Find A
the resistance between points A and B.

Answers, = 2 Ω
 Prepared By Bishnu Paudel [Writer, Vidyarthi Publication Kathmandu]

13. In circuit shown below, the resistances are given in ohms. The battery is assumed to ideal with emf is
equal to 3 V. Find the voltage across R = 30Ω.
50Ω 60Ω 30Ω=R
+

3V 50Ω
- 30Ω

Answers, = 0.4 V 6Ω
14. Find the equivalent resistance and potential difference between A 2A 2.5Ω
and B for the circuit is given below. C 6Ω D
A B
3Ω
Answers, = 4 Ω, 8V R R
15. Thirteen resistances each of resistance R ohms are connected in the R
R R
circuit as shown in figure below. Find the effective resistance between R
two points A and B. A R B
R R R
R

R R
2R D
4Ω
Answers, = 6Ω 4Ω
3
16. In the figure given below find the value of X (resistance), when the
6Ω
potential difference between two points B and D is zero. 4Ω C
Answers, = 8 Ω A 15Ω
8Ω 3Ω
15Ω
6Ω X
17. In the figure, find the value of resistors to be connected between C and D B
so that resistance of the entire circuit between A and B does not R R R R
A C
change with the number of elementary sets used.
R R R R R

Answers, = R( 3 - 1) B R D
R R R
18. If each resistance in the figure is of 9Ω. What is the
reading in ammeter?
+
9V
_
Answers, = 5A A
Skill Test Questions
1. Two wire of equal length, one aluminum and the other of copper have the same resistance. Which
of the two wires is lighter? Hence explain why aluminum wires are preferred for overhead power
cables. (ρAl = 2.63 × 10-8 Ωm, ρCo = 1.72 × 10-8 Ωm, Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9)
2. The earth’s surface has a negative surface charge density of 10-9C/m2. The potential difference of
400kV between the top of the atmosphere and the surface results in a current of only 1800A over the
entire globe. If there were no mechanism of sustaining atmosphere electric field, how much time
would be required to neutralize the earth’s surface? (Radius of earth = 6.37 × 106 m)
3. Two batteries one of the emf 3 V, internal resistance 1 ohm and the E1 E2
other of emf 15 V, internal resistance 2 ohm are connected in series with A 3V 1Ω B 2Ω 15V
I
I R
 Direct Current cicuits 353

a resistance R as shown. If the potential difference between A and B is zero the resistance of R in
ohm is.
4. Two bulbs rated (25W – 220 V) and (100W – 220V) are connected in series to a 440 V line. Which
one is likely to fuse?
Hints
ρl ρ
1. We can use, R = →R α and mass, m =Ald, then, m α ρd
A A
mAl ρAl dAl 2.63 × 10-8×2.7
So, =m × = =0.464
mCo ρCo dCo 1.72 × 10-8×8.9
Hence, aluminum is lighter.
Q σA 4 4
2. We can use, time, t = I = I = I σлr2 =1800 ×10-9×л (6.37 × 106)2= 283 Sec.
3+15
We can use, I = 1+2+R …. (i)
E1 E2
3.
  A 3V 1Ω B 2Ω 15V

Again, it is given that potential between two points A and B is zero. I

3+15
or, 3- 1×1+2+R = 0 →R = 3 Ω I R
 
1 R1 P2 100 4 V1 R1 4
4. Resistance, R α P , then R = P = 25 = 1 and, V = R = 1
2 1 2 2
4V 4 V 1
Now, V1 = 1+4= 5 ×440 = 352 V and V2 = 1+4 = 5 ×440 = 88 V
 
V1 >Vrated and V2 <Vrated, hence, 25 W bulb fuses.

♦♦♦