ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Soladevanahalli, Bengaluru – 560107

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR CSE STREAM

(BCHES102)

Dr. BEBETO RAI

Asst. Professor, Department of Chemistry
Acharya Institute of Technology
Soladevanahalli, Bengaluru – 560107

2024-25
 ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

COURSE NAME
Course Code BCHES102 Semester I

MODULE – 02: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

SYLLABUS CONTENT

Memory Devices: Introduction, Basic concepts of electronic memory, History of organic/polymer

electronic memory devices Classification of electronic memory devices (Transistor-Type, Capacitor-
Type, Resistor-Type and Charge transfer type Electronic Memory devices), types of organic memory
devices; Organic molecules (p-type semiconductor–ex., Pentacene; n-type ex., Perfluoropentacene used
as memory materials) types of organic memory devices; polymeric material (Polyimide as an example
with Donor-Triphenylamine; Acceptor–phthalimide)

Display Systems: Photoactive and electroactive materials - Definition and principle for photoactive and
electroactive. Optoelectronic devices: Definition, working principle. Nanomaterials (Silicon
Nanocrystals) and organic materials [Light absorbing materials - Polythiophenes (P3HT), Light emitting
materials - Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK)], properties why they are used in optoelectronic devices.
Liquid crystals (LC’s) - Introduction, classification properties and application in Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCD’s) Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) and Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLED’s) –
Properties and applications.
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Memory devices
In the context of computer technology and electronic devices, refer to hardware
components used to store and retrieve digital information.

Basic concepts of electronic memory

Memory is subdivided into two storage units known as Bit and Byte.
Bit represents a binary data and it can have one of two values: 0 or 1.
Byte represent a wide range of data (characters, numbers, or instructions) and it’s a
group of eight Bits.

Memory devices classification:

1. Primary memory or internal memory or main memory can be directly accessed by

the processor. It includes both volatile and non-volatile memory components.
Ex. RAM, ROM.
Primary memory can be broadly classified as:
a. Volatile memory: temporary memory and it requires power or electricity to
maintain its data; Volatile memory loses all its data when the power or electricity
is turned off. Ex. RAM
b. Non-volatile memory: It is a memory that holds all the data in absence of
electricity too. Ex. ROM, Internal Hard-Disc etc.

2. Secondary memory devices include non-volatile storage options like hard disk
drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and flash memory, which provide long-
term storage for data even when the power is turned off. These storage devices can
hold large amounts of data, but accessing data from secondary memory is relatively
slower compared to primary memory.

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Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory, loses its data when the power is
turned off. That means to retain its content the RAM memory has to be provided with a
constant power supply. Once the power supply to this memory chip is switched off this
memory chip loses all its content. It is easy to read and write data in the RAM memory.

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a non-volatile memory, it does not require a power supply
to retain its bit value. On the ROM memory chip, the data or program is embedded during
the chip fabrication hence this memory can only be read and not be written or modified.

Cache memory is a is a volatile memory, it acts as a temporary storage area and keeps
the copies of the recently accessed information from the main memory.

Classification of electronic memory devices based on operational principles.

Resistor-Type Memory Devices:

In some insulators (resistive material), the change of resistance occurs
under the influence of the applied electric field and this property has
been utilised in memory applications.
Resistor-type memory devices consist of a thin film of a resistive
material (metal oxide) placed between two electrodes.
When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, a redox reaction occurs
within the resistive material, causing a reversible change in its
resistance.
The resistive material can exist in two distinct resistance states, low-
resistance state and a high-resistance state, which correspond to the ON and OFF states,
holding the values of ONE and ZERO, and create a means to store and access
information.
Each resistor can be at one state at a time and represents 1 bit of information.

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Capacitor-Type Memory Devices: A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can

store energy in the form of an electric charge between the two metal plates separated by
dielectric material.
The capacitor can exist in two distinct states,
discharged state and a charged state, which
correspond to the OFF and ON states, holding
the values of ZERO and ONE, and create a means
to store and access information.
Each capacitor can be at one state at a time and
represents 1 bit of information.
Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM) is a
well-known example of this type.

Transistor-Type electronic memory: Transistors are semiconductor devices composed of

a source, a gate, and a drain and it has a capability to amplify and regulates current or
voltage flow.
The gate-source voltage controls the flow of charge between
source and drain.
The absence or presence of charge at the gate, represents
binary data (ZERO or ONE)
ie., the transistor is capable of toggling between the OFF
and ON states, holding the values of ZERO and ONE, and
create a means to store and access information.
Each transistor can be at one state at a time and
represents 1 bit of information.

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Charge Transfer-Type Memory Devices: A device whose operation depends on the

movement of discrete packets of charge along or beneath a semiconductor surface to
achieve changes in its conductivity, which are then employed to store and retrieve
information.

It consists
of capacitor
array of p-
type silicon

semiconductor with a thin layer of an insulating layer of silicon dioxide, on top of which
is deposited an array of metal gates. When a positive bias (voltage) is applied between the
electrode and its substrate, electrons accumulate near the upper surface of the silicon
beneath the electrode resulting in the formation of a potential well where electrons, are
trapped and held in a stable state. Charge shifting can be accomplished by progressively
shifting gate voltage along the array.
The last capacitor in the array transfers its charge to a charge amplifier, converting it
into a voltage.
The resulting voltage being sampled, digitized, and typically stored as memory in devices.
The absence or presence of charge, represents binary data (ZERO or ONE) and create a
means to store and access information.

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Organic memory devices

Organic memory devices: Some organic materials exhibit reversible changes in their
electronic properties, in response to external stimuli such as voltage, current, or light.
This property of organic materials has been utilized for storing and retrieving digital
information.
In Organic memory devices organic materials are sandwiched between two electrodes,
and their electronic properties are modified in response to external stimuli (voltage,
current, or light). The trapping and de-trapping of charge carriers (electrons or holes)
within the organic layer are utilized to represents the binary states (0 and 1) of digital
information. One of the examples for Organic Memory Devices is Organic Field Effect
Transistors (OFETs).
Organic Field Effect Transistors (OFETs) are three-terminal electrical devices (much like
conventional transistors) that controls the electrical current flowing between two
electrodes i.e., source and drain, through the modulation of voltage or current at a third
electrode i.e., gate.

Organic memory devices can be

broadly categorized in to
1. Molecular memory devices, and
2. Polymer memory devices

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1. Molecular memory devices: in a molecular memory device, a highly ordered monolayer

of molecules is packed in such a way that one end of the molecule is electrically connected
to the bottom electrode and the opposite end of the molecule is connected to the top
electrode. By applying a voltage between the electrodes, the conductivity of the molecules
is altered, enabling data to be stored in a non-volatile manner. The process can then be
reversed and the data erased by applying a voltage of the opposite polarity to the memory
cell.

Pentacene, a p-type semiconductor, as a memory material in Organic memory devices.

Pentacene, a p-type semiconductor, is employed as a
memory material as part of transistors in Organic memory
devices such as organic field-effect transistors (OFETs)].
When a voltage is applied to the OFET, holes as charge carrier accumulate at the
Pentacene semiconductor/dielectric interface forming conductive channel and these
charge carries migrate from source to drain along the interface under the electric field.
The gate in the OFET acts as a switch that determines whether holes are injected into
the Pentacene layer. By applying appropriate voltage to the gate, the device can be
programmed to trap charge carriers in specific locations within the material. The absence
or presence of charge carries corresponds to the OFF and ON states, holding the values
of ZERO and ONE, and create a means to store and access information.

Perfluoropentacene, a n-type semiconductor, as a memory material in Organic memory

devices.
Perfluoropentacene, a n-type semiconductor, is employed as
a memory material as part of transistors in Organic memory
devices [organic field-effect transistors (OFETs)].
When a voltage is applied to the OFET, electrons as charge carrier accumulate at the
Perfluoropentacene semiconductor/ dielectric interface forming conductive channel and
these charge carries migrate from source to drain along the interface under the electric
field. The gate in the OFET acts as a switch that determines whether electrons are
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injected into the Perfluoropentacene layer. By applying appropriate voltage to the gate,
the device can be programmed to trap charge carriers in specific locations within the
material. The absence or presence of charge carries corresponds to the OFF and ON
states, holding the values of ZERO and ONE, and create a means to store and access
information.

2. Polymer memory devices: in a molecular memory device, a thin film of polymer is

sandwiched between a top and bottom electrode. By applying a voltage between the
electrodes, the conductivity of the polymer is altered, enabling data to be stored in a non-
volatile manner. The process can then be reversed and the data erased by applying a
voltage of the opposite polarity to the memory cell.
Polyimide as an example with Donor-Triphenylamine; Acceptor–phthalimide in a
molecular memory device
The working principle of organic memory devices
based on polymeric materials with donor-
triphenylamine and acceptor–phthalimide is based
on the formation of a Charge Transfer Complex
between the triphenylamine and phthalimide
moieties. When a voltage is applied to the device, the
triphenylamine moieties donate electrons to the
phthalimide moieties, forming the Charge Transfer
Complex.
The Charge Transfer Complex can be switched
between two states:
The ON state is achieved when the Charge Transfer
Complex is formed.
The OFF state is achieved when the Charge Transfer Complex is broken.
The switching between the ON and OFF states is reversible, represents binary data (ZERO
or ONE) and create a means to store and access information.

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Display Systems
Display Systems: Photoactive materials and electroactive materials.
Definition and principle for photoactive and electroactive.

Photoactive materials: Materials that exhibit a significant change in their physical,

chemical, or electrical properties on exposure to light (electromagnetic radiations) are
known as photoactive materials.

Working Principle of Photoactive materials in Display Systems: In display systems,

photoactive materials play vital roles in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).
Photoactive materials, in Display Systems like OLEDs, have conjugated pi-electron
systems, which can absorb and emit light efficiently, when an electric current is applied.
When an electric current is passes through the organic layer in OLEDs, the photoactive
material gets excited, and the absorbed energy is released as photons, producing visible
light. This process is called electroluminescence. The colour of the emitted light is
determined by the properties of the photoactive material, offering a wide range of colour
possibilities for displays.

Electroactive Materials: Materials that undergo reversible changes in their electrical

properties, such as conductivity, resistance, or capacitance, under the influence of
applied electric field or voltage are known as electroactive Materials.

Working Principle of Electroactive materials in Display Systems: Electroactive materials

work based on the principle of electrochemical response to an applied electric field.
Electroactive materials are commonly used in liquid crystal displays (LCDs). In an LCD,
liquid crystals are sandwiched between two layers of transparent electrodes. These liquid
crystals are electroactive and can change their orientation when subjected to an electric
field. By applying different voltages to the electrodes, the alignment of the liquid crystal
molecules can be adjusted, allowing light to pass through or be blocked, thus controlling
the brightness and colour of individual pixels.

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Optoelectronic Device: An optoelectronic device is a device that converts light energy into
electrical energy or electrical energy into light energy. It is a combination of photoactive
and electroactive systems. Optoelectronic devices are used in a wide variety of
applications, including telecommunications, imaging, sensing, and display.
Working Principle: In an optoelectronic device, the light is either absorbed or emitted by
the material.

If the light is absorbed, the energy of the light is

converted into electrical energy. This is the
principle of operation of a photodiode. A
photodiode is a semiconductor device that
converts light energy into electrical current.

If the light is emitted, the electrical energy is converted to light. This is the principle of
operation of a light-emitting diode (LED). An LED is a semiconductor device that emits
light when an electrical current is applied.

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Nanomaterial: refers to the matter whose length scale, in any dimension, is in 1 to 100
nanometers.

Silicon Nano crystals: represent the ranges of wide bandgap silicon-based nanomaterial
characterized by their tuneable light emission properties in photonics.
Characteristics/Properties
1. It has high surface to volume ratio resulting in more “surface” dependent
properties.
2. They are wide bandgap semiconducting nanomaterial. The bandgap of a Silicon
Nano crystals determines the wavelength of light that they emit.
3. Silicon Nano crystals emit light when they are excited by light or heat. This property
makes them useful for applications such as LEDs and lasers.
4. The properties of Silicon Nano crystals can be tuned by changing the size, shape,
and surface chemistry. This makes them a versatile material that can be used for
a variety of applications.

Applications:
Optoelectronic devices, Light-emitting diodes, Transistors, Memory devices, Sensors, and
Solar cells

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Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)
Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) is a low band gap p-type
semiconducting polymer synthesized by oxidative polymerization
of monomer 3-hexylthiophene in the presence of initiator, such
as benzoyl peroxide or AIBN.

Important properties / characteristics of Poly(3-hexylthiophene) suitable for

optoelectronic devices,
1. Bandgap: The bandgap of P3HT is in the range of 1.8 to 2.2 eV, which makes it
suitable for optoelectronic devices that emit light in the visible or near-infrared
region of the spectrum.
2. Conductivity: P3HT is a semiconducting polymer, and this property makes it
suitable for use in electronic devices, such as transistors and sensors.
3. Transparency: P3HT is transparent in the visible region of the spectrum, which
makes it suitable for use in optoelectronic devices.
4. Processability: P3HT can be easily processed into thin films by a variety of methods,
such as spin coating and inkjet printing. This makes it a versatile material that
can be used in a variety of optoelectronic devices.
5. Thermal stability: P3HT is relatively poor photochemical and thermal stability
under ambient atmosphere.

Applications of Poly(3-hexylthiophene):
1. Optoelectronic devices,
2. Light-emitting diodes,
3. Transistors,
4. Memory devices,
5. Sensors,
6. OLEDs and OFETs,
7. Organic Solar cells.

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Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK)
Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK) is a large band gap p-type non-conjugated
semiconducting polymer synthesized by oxidative polymerization of
monomer N-vinylcarbazole in the presence of initiator, such as benzoyl
peroxide or AIBN.
Important properties / characteristics of Poly[9-vinylcarbazole]
suitable for optoelectronic devices,
1. Bandgap: The bandgap of PVK is around 3.5 eV, which makes it suitable for

optoelectronic devices that emit light in the visible or near-infrared region of the
spectrum.
2. In OLEDs, PVK is used as the hole-transporting layer.

3. Conductivity: PVK is a semiconducting polymer, which can be can be doped (iodine

or sulphur) to increase its electrical conductivity. This property makes it suitable

for use in electronic devices, such as transistors and sensors.
4. Transparency: PVK is transparent in the visible region of the spectrum, which

makes it suitable for use in optoelectronic devices.

5. Processability: PVK can be easily processed into thin films by a variety of methods,

such as spin coating and inkjet printing. This makes it a versatile material that
can be used in a variety of optoelectronic devices.

6. It’s a temperature-resistant thermoplastic polymer. It is stable up to temperatures

of around 200°C, which makes it suitable for use in high-temperature applications.

Applications of PVK:
1. Optoelectronic devices,
2. Light-emitting diodes,
3. Transistors,
4. Memory devices,
5. Sensors,
6. OLEDs and OFETs,
7. Organic Solar cells.
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Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s):

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) is
solid-state optoelectronic device which
utilizes semiconducting organic materials
sandwiched between the electrodes to emit
light under the influence of electrical energy.

Properties of OLED’s
1. OLED’s emit their own light, under the influence of electrical energy and they don’t
require a backlight.
2. The colour of light emitted by OLED’s can be tuned by varying the chemical
composition of the organic materials used.
3. OLED’s have a fast response time, and they can display fast-moving images without
blurring.
4. OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, and the images look good from almost any angle.
5. OLED’s can be made flexible, which makes them ideal for applications such as
wearable devices and curved displays.
6. OLED’s consume less power than LCDs, making them more energy efficient.

Applications of OLED’s
1. Displays: OLEDs are used in a wide variety of display systems, including
televisions, smartphones, laptops, smartwatches, head-mounted displays and
virtual reality headsets.
2. Lighting: OLEDs are used in a variety of lighting applications, including light bulbs,
lamps, and signage.
3. Sensors: OLEDs have found applications in sensors that can detect light, heat, and
other environmental factors.
4. Electronics: OLEDs are used to fabricate electronic components, such as
transistors and diodes.

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5. Medical devices: OLEDs are used in a variety of medical applications, such as heart
rate monitors, blood oxygen sensors, and surgical imaging devices.

Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs):

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) is solid-state optoelectronic device which utilizes
Quantum dots sandwiched between the layers of a traditional LED electrodes to emit
light under the influence of electrical energy.

Properties of QLEDs
1. The quantum dots are very efficient at converting electrical energy into light energy.
2. QLEDs can produce a wider range of colours than traditional LED displays,
resulting in more realistic and lifelike images.
3. The colour of light emitted by QLEDs can be tuned by varying the size and
composition of the quantum dots.
4. QLEDs have higher brightness levels than traditional LED displays.
5. QLEDs have better contrast ratio than traditional LED displays
6. QLEDs are flexible and lightweight.
7. QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays

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Applications of QLEDs
1. Displays: QLEDs are used in a wide variety of display systems, including
televisions, smartphones, laptops, smartwatches, and other display systems.
2. Lighting: QLEDs are used in a variety of lighting applications, including light bulbs,
lamps, and signage.
3. Sensors: QLEDs have found applications in sensors that can detect light, heat, and
other environmental factors.
4. Electronics: OLEDs are used to fabricate electronic components, such as
transistors and diodes.
5. Medical devices: OLEDs are used in a variety of medical applications, including
medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines, to produce high resolution
and accurate images.

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Liquid Crystals: Liquid crystals are a state of matter that

has properties that are between crystalline phase and liquid
phase. They have some properties of crystals, such as the
ability to form a regular lattice, and some properties of
liquids, such as the ability to flow.

Classification of Liquid crystals: broadly classified into two main categories:

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals and
2. Lyotropic liquid crystals.

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals: Thermotropic liquid crystals are the organic

molecules that have a rod-like shape and orientation is dependent on the
temperature.
Thermotropic liquid crystals are further classified into,
A. Nematic liquid crystals: liquid
crystals molecules that are aligned
in parallel, and they can freely move
around each other.
B. Smectic liquid crystals: liquid
crystals molecules that are
arranged in layers, and the layers
can slide over each other.
C. Cholesteric liquid crystals: liquid
crystals molecules that are aligned
in a helical fashion

2. Lyotropic liquid crystals: Lyotropic liquid crystals are liquid crystals that are
affected by the concentration of the liquid crystal molecules in a solvent. They have
long, rod-like shape organic molecules with polar head group. When the
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concentration of the liquid crystal molecules in a solvent is increased, the

molecules start to align themselves in parallel fashion.
A. Micelle-forming liquid crystals: liquid crystals molecules that form micelles.
B. Lamellar liquid crystals: liquid crystal molecules that form layers and are
stacked on top of each other.
C. Columnar liquid crystals: liquid crystal molecules that form columns and
are aligned parallelly in the same direction.

Properties of Liquid Crystals:

1. Liquid crystals have some properties of crystals, such as the ability to form a
regular lattice, and some properties of liquids, such as the ability to flow.
2. Liquid crystals respond to changes in temperature, light, or electric fields.
3. Liquid crystals are anisotropic, and their optical, thermal and electrical properties
are different in different directions.
4. Liquid crystals are birefringent, it possesses two different indices of refraction.
Because, molecules in a liquid crystal are aligned in a specific direction, and this
alignment can affect the way that light travels through the liquid crystal.

Applications of Liquid Crystals:

1. Displays: Liquid crystals are used in a wide variety of display systems, including
televisions, smartphones, laptops, smartwatches, and other display systems.
2. Lighting: Liquid crystals are used in a variety of lighting applications, including
light bulbs, lamps, and signage.
3. Sensors: Liquid crystals have found applications in sensors that can detect light,
heat, and other environmental factors.
4. Electronics: Liquid crystals are used to fabricate electronic components, such as
transistors and diodes.
5. Medical devices: Liquid crystals are used in a variety of medical applications,
including medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines.
6. Data storage: Since Liquid crystals respond to changes in temperature, light, or
electric fields they can be used to store data.

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