A PROJECT PRESNTATION IN THE COLLEGE
OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES
DEPATMENT OF NURSING SCIENCES
TOPIC: RESEARCH DESIGNS
BY
JAMES, PRECIOUS IFECHUKWU
RU/NSC/19/052
AND
JONES, CHIKA CELINDA KUBIAT
RU/NSC/19/053
SUPERVISOR – MRS NWOKORO, U.I.
COURSE: RESEARCH IN NURSING
DATE: 2nd February 2022.
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Acknowledgement
First we want to acknowledge God almighty for helping and keeping us till this day, we also
want to acknowledge our parents and guardians for their great support in our lives to see that
they provide every need pertaining to this course. The lecturers of Rhema University who took
out time to teach and train us for this purpose and assisted us during the course of our research.
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Dedication
We dedicate this Presentation to God Almighty, our Parents, the H.O.D of Nursing science
department Rhema University, the lecturer who assisted us in this course and to our Supervisor.
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Table of Contents
Title page ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………….. 2
Dedication ……………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………....... 5
Definition …………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
- Purpose of Research designs………………………………………………………….. 6
- Choice of Research designs …………………………………………………………... 6
Classifications of Research designs ………………………………………………………. 7
- Quantitative Research design …………………………………………………………. 7
. Types of quantitative research design
1. Experimental designs ………………………………………………………………… 8
2. Non-experimental designs ……………………………………………………………. 11
3. Quasi-experimental designs ………………………………………………………….. 14
4. Survey designs ……………………………………………………………………….. 15
- Differences between Experimental and Non-experimental design …………………… 13
- Qualitative Research design …………………………………………………………… 16
. Types of qualitative design
1) Phenomenology …………………………………………………………………….. 17
2) Grounded theory …………………………………………………………………….. 18
3) Ethnography………………………………………………………………………...... 19
4) Narrative inquiry ……………………………………………………………………. 20
Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Designs …………………………. 21
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………… 22
References ……………………………………………………………………………………. 23
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Introduction
In the best of all possible worlds, evidence would be the result of well-controlled, perfectly
designed studies. Of course, most nurses do not practice in the best of all possible worlds
nursing research is planned by making a series of decisions, each of which involves weighing
alternatives and options in the search for knowledge. It is important, then, to understand each of
the predominant research designs so a study can be planned that best answers the research
question and therefore is the strongest evidence for practice. Research is designed to investigate
explicit questions. In the case of nursing research these questions relate to those aspects of
professional activity that are predominantly and appropriately the concern and responsibility of
nurses.
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Definition of Research Designs
Research design is studied in both macro and micro sense. From a macro perspective, design
refers to an overall approach to the study, grounded in a set of beliefs about knowledge and the
question that must be answered. Dealing with choices requires a micro view of the research
process, including decisions that will give the researcher specific guidance in implementing the
study. This micro view is called research design.
A research design is a strategy to get the information the researcher wants in a study. It is the
overall plan for answering the research questions or testing the hypotheses. The research design
incorporates the data collection plan, the sampling plan and the analysis plan. There is no hard
rule for specific designs, but the decision of which one to use rests on the researcher and the
nature of the research. Each researcher could choose the design deemed most suitable for the
specific research.
Purposes of Research designs
The major purposes include theses:
- To enable the researcher focus on the key variables under investigation
- To facilitate adequate sampling methods
- To ensure that the appropriate data collection method is applied.
- It enhances the data analysis plan.
Choice of Research designs
The type of design chosen by any researcher depends on:
• The research question
• The researcher’s knowledge
• Time available for study
• Resources available
• Availability and commitment of research participants
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Classification of Research Designs
Research design could be described in two ways;
A. Quantitative research: Here information is collected in quantities, data would be in
numbers. The common theme to virtually all quantitative research is that it involves the
handling of numerical information (information involving numbers) and it is best known for its
use of numerical information. Numbers can provide insights into many aspects of health and
health care. It can inform you how common a disease is at any given time among the population
(the percentage of the population who have a disease comprises numerical information), the risks
of contracting a disease (the odds of catching a disease is made up of numerical information) and
can tell you a lot about whether one method of treating an illness is better or worse than another
mode of treatment by comparing the number of symptoms of people following each mode of
treatment (the number of symptoms comprises numerical information).
An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount of time a
doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient satisfaction
survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did a doctor takes to
see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other such questions.
Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even investigational.
The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data
collection happened using a structured method and conducted on larger samples that represent
the entire population.
Types of Quantitative Research
There are four quantitative research designs that is commonly used;
5. Experimental designs
6. Non-experimental designs
7. Quasi-experimental designs
8. Survey designs
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Experimental design
This type of design is mostly concerned with a cause and effect relationships. It is mostly how
experiments where being carried out in secondary school and how we had to control the
environment in order to give us our desired result. This is the same way that experimental
research is carried out. Most of the experimental studies carried out involve manipulation and
control in order of the independent variable and how it affects the dependent variable.
Experimental research are very difficult to establish but are highly respected in the scientific
world: though nursing researchers still employ the use of non-experimental research.
Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of
variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second
set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental. If you don’t have enough data
to support your decisions, you must first determine the facts. Experimental research gathers the
data necessary to help you make better decisions. Any research conducted under scientifically
acceptable conditions uses experimental methods. The success of experimental studies hinges on
researchers confirming the change of a variable is based solely on the manipulation of the
constant variable. The research should establish a notable cause and effect. You can conduct
experimental research in the following situations: Time is a vital factor in establishing a
relationship between cause and effect.
Types of Experimental design
The way you classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups, determines the type of
research design you should use. There are two primary types of experimental design;
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1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under
observation after implementing factors of cause and effect. You’ll conduct this research
to understand whether further investigation is necessary for these particular groups. This
kind of experimental designs are considered very weak and in which the researcher has
little control over the research. Sometimes these types of designs are discussed to provide
examples of how not to do research.
You can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:
. One-shot Case Study Research Design- In a one-shot case study, a single group is exposed to an
experimental treatment and observed after the treatment.
. One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design- The one-group pretest-posttest design provides a
comparison between a group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment.
2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical
analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research.
Of the types of experimental design, only true design can establish a cause-effect
relationship within a group. In a true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:
There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental Group, which
will experience the changed variables. This experimental research method commonly occurs in
the physical sciences.
Steps to select an experimental research
1. Identify and study the population.
2. Select a sample from the population by simple random sampling.
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3. Randomly assign the sample to two subgroups, which you will name experimental and
control groups.
4. Observe and record the characteristics of the two groups.
5. Introduce the independent variable to the experimental group but not the control group.
6. Later observe the dependent variable in both the experimental and control groups.
7. Compare the changes in the experimental group with that of the control group.
8. Compare the values statically and judge the differences from the two groups.
9. If the findings are significantly greater than would be expected to occur by chance, a
casual relationship between the dependent and independent variable.
Advantages of experimental research
It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into something that may
not work? Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before
taking it to market. It also provides the best method to test your theory.
1. Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
2. The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research.
3. Any industry can implement it for research purposes.
4. The results are specific.
5. After analyzing the results, you can apply your findings to similar ideas or situations.
6. You can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze
this relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.
7. Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data you collect is a foundation
on which to build more ideas and conduct more research.
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Disadvantages of Experimental design
1. Experimental research is highly prone to human error while the major disadvantage of non-
experimental research is that the results obtained cannot be absolutely clear and error-free. In the
long run, the error obtained due to human error may affect the results of the experimental
research.
2. Some other disadvantages of experimental research include the following; extraneous
variables cannot always be controlled, human responses can be difficult to measure, and
participants may also cause bias.
Non- Experimental design
Non-experimental research is the type of research that does not involve the manipulation of
control or independent variable. In non-experimental research, researchers measure variables as
they naturally occur without any further manipulation. This type of research is used when the
researcher has no specific research question about a causal relationship between 2 different
variables, and manipulation of the independent variable is impossible. Many nurse researchers
have made great use of research designs. Experimental research cannot be conducted with human
beings because of ethical reasons so at times non experimental research is the best style to use.
All non-experimental research is descriptive because there is no manipulation of data or
variables over the research setting. One reason for using a non-experimental design is that a vast
number of human characteristics are inherently not subject to experimental manipulation (e.g.,
blood type, personality, health beliefs, and medical diagnosis), the effects of these characteristics
on other phenomena cannot be studied experimentally. Another reason being that there are some
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research questions for which an experimental design is not appropriate. This is especially true for
descriptive studies, which seek to document the characteristics, prevalence, intensity, or full
nature of phenomena.
Characteristics of non-experimental research
1. Most studies are based on events that occurred previously and are analyzed later.
2. In this method, controlled experiments are not performed for reasons such as ethics or
morality.
3. No study samples are created; on the contrary, the samples or participants already exist and
develop in their environment.
4. The researcher does not intervene directly in the environment of the sample.
5. This method studies the phenomena exactly as they occurred.
Types of non-experimental research design
Correlational Research: Correlation type of research compares the statistical relationship
between two variables. Correlation research is classified as non-experimental because it does not
manipulate the independent variables. For example, a researcher may wish to investigate the
relationship between the class of family students come from and their grades in school. A
questionnaire may be given to students to know the average income of their family, and then
compare it with CGPAs. In correlational research, the researcher examines the strength of
relationship between variables by determining how the changes in one variable affect the other.
Example of Correlational Research Questions:
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- The relationship between stress and depression.
- The equation between fame and money.
- The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.
Descriptive Research: its purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of situations as
it naturally occurs and to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation and theory
development.
Advantages of Non-experimental design
1. It is very flexible during the research process
2. The cause of the phenomenon is known, and the effect it has is investigated.
3. The researcher can define the characteristics of the study group.
Disadvantages of non-experimental design
1. The groups are not representative of the entire population.
2. Errors in the methodology may occur, leading to biases.
Differences between Experimental and Non-experimental Design
Experimental design Non-experimental design
They are characterized by randomization, The subjects are studied just as they are, but
control and manipulation of subjects with less control and they maybe random
selection subjects
They are more cost effective because they They are less expensive compared to
have to create environment to control it experimental
They are suitable to replication They are not suitable to replication
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It is able to determine the cause and effect of They are not able to determine such
a relationship
Quasi-Experimental design
The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to experimental,
but it is not the same. The difference between the two is the assignment of a control group. In
this research, an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a group are not
randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in field settings where random assignment is either
irrelevant or not required. Quasi-experimental research design is discussed in two divisions are
necessary to the researchers;
Case–control designs: also known as non-equivalent control group design. They are research
designs that researchers used to identify or study the possible variables that may contribute to
various health factors. It is similar to the pretest-posttest control group design except there is no
random assignment of subjects to the experimental and comparison groups.
Time series design: a control group was used but randomization was not, the researcher
periodically observes or measures the subjects. With its numerous observations or measurements
of the dependent variable helps strengthen the validity of the design.
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Survey Designs
It is an empirical method of obtaining large amount of data in a relatively short time and tries to
understand the phenomenon rather than cause and effect. It provides accurate assessment of the
characteristics of the whole population and can be used in studying large and small population to
determine the frequency of events. A nurse researcher might use survey to gather data on health
needs of the client, their sleep patterns or they perceptions of the nursing care they have received.
One of the major advantage of survey research is the ability to provide accurate information on
population while using relatively small samples and another advantage is the large amount of
data gotten can be generated quickly with lest time. Although the responses given maybe not be
true and some are socially acceptable. There are two types of survey known as cross- section and
longitudinal survey. In a cross- sectional surveys subjects are studies at one point at a time, while
in longitudinal survey subjects are studied over time over an extended period. Examples of
survey are opinion polls, attitudes, status of individuals etc
Prospective design: it is an opposite of retrospective and it is a longitudinal study. It identifies
the independent variable X in the present and look to the future in respect to identify the
dependent variable Y which can be a potential effect. It begins with a presume cause and look
forward to its effects.
Retrospective design: it means looking backwards and this is where changes in the independent
variable have already occurred before the research due to the natural course of events. The
dependent variable is identified in the present and then the researcher looks to the previous
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events that have already occurred to identify the possible independent variable. The researcher
does not manipulate the independent variable to observe the effect.
B. Qualitative Research: It is a research design concerned with establishing answers
concerned with the whys and hows of the phenomenon in question. It is often defined as
being subjective and findings are gathered in a written format. Qualitative research is a
type of research that involves the measurement of the health and healthcare through a
range of philosophical methods and ways. It is widely accepted in the academic world
particularly to nursing. Qualitative research will require you immerse yourself in the
world of your participants and it is more subjective than objective.
In qualitative research, participants are purposively selected for their experience with the
phenomena of interest as opposed to a random selection or sampling from a larger population.
The data from selected participants are considered rich in detail and are often referred to as dense
or thick descriptions. Typical sample sizes vary from few up to 30 participants. This is quite
different from quantitative samples that often require larger number of participants, guided by
statistical power analyses. The power in qualitative research is in the richness of description and
detail of specific lived experiences, social processes, cultures, and narrative accounts.
The methods used in qualitative designs are less structured than in quantitative designs and
primarily include multiple in-depth interviews, ongoing participant-observation, written diaries,
narrative descriptions, and focus groups.
Types of Qualitative Research
The four types of qualitative research designs most often used to conduct nursing research
include:
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1) Phenomenology
2) Grounded theory
3) Ethnography
4) Narrative inquiry
Phenomenology
The purpose of phenomenological research is to describe specific phenomena of interest as they
are lived and experienced by individuals. The focus of phenomenological studies is on
understanding what an experience means within the context of people's lives. This is referred to
as capturing the lived experience. For example, a research question for this approach might be
"What is the experience of teens living in a family at genetic risk for Huntington disease?" The
only reliable sources of information to answer this type of inquiry or question are the people
experiencing the phenomena. In this example, teen participants would be sought whose parent or
grandparent had tested positive or had symptoms of Huntington disease.
To select a sample for a phenomenological study, the researcher purposively selects individuals
or groups that have experienced the phenomenon. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are established
based on the focus for study. Estimating the number of participants depends on the amount and
quality of information elicited from each participant, the scope of the study, the nature of the
topic, and the number of interviews per participant(9). In a focused study, with a clearly defined
topic and limited scope, a relatively small sample size (10 or fewer participants) is required.
However, if each participant is interviewed only once and the amount of information limited,
large numbers (up to 60 participants) are sought. The key is to reach saturation of data.
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Saturation is the state where no more new data of importance to the study emerges and the
elements of all of the themes, concepts, and theory are accounted for (10).
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory research was discovered by two sociologist called glasser and Strauss in 1967.
They involve the use of deductive and inductive approach development. Researchers use a
grounded theory design when they are interested in phenomena involving the social processes
underlying human experiences and behavior (5). For example, a research question for this
approach might be "How do children cope following the death of a sibling?" In this example,
children would be interviewed and asked questions, as well as their parents and, perhaps, their
schoolteachers. The different concepts and patterns of coping that emerge from the analysis of
the data are then synthesized into a theory to serve as a guide for further understanding or testing.
The main idea is that the theory of how children cope emerges from the descriptions of those
experiencing the phenomenon, not from ideas from those who have not. The aim of a grounded
theory approach is the generation of theory that comes from, or is "grounded" in, the data (10).
The primary characteristics of grounded theory designs are theoretical sampling and the constant
comparison of data with emerging categories (3). Data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously and each piece of new data is constantly compared and contrasted with
previously identified concepts (5). Sample sizes tend to be larger in grounded theory designs,
when compared to other qualitative designs, because of need for theoretical sampling.
Theoretical sampling means that the selection of participants is directed by the emerging analysis
(6). In other words, the researcher begins with a focused sample, but as different concepts
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emerge, the researcher seeks out additional participants based on further understanding of his
concepts. This process often includes the search for outliers and negative cases so the full range
of possible experiences or a full understanding takes place. Theoretical sampling continues until
the researcher is satisfied that the theory synthesized from the data and concepts are reflective of
the social process under study.
Ethnography
Researchers use ethnography as a research design when they are seeking a deeper understanding
or description of a specific culture, group, or community (10). Ethnography involves
experiencing, most often by participant observation, enquiring, through interviews and oral
histories, and examining, the study of cultural documents and artifacts. Most of the time,
ethnography is equated with the extended immersion of the researcher in the culture, group, or
community under study. This is often referred to as fieldwork and the extensive notes taken by
the researcher are referred to as field notes. Immersion in the field helps the researcher identify
key informants, customs, and artifacts that are so enmeshed in the group being studied that they
would probably not be identified by simple interview.
Although ethnography is the research design most often thought of when studying culture, the
word culture can be interpreted in many ways. Culture can be defined as the way of life of a
group learned behaviors that are socially constructed and transmitted (10). Researchers can use
ethnography to explore the culture of nursing, of nursing homes, academia, and/or politics. Each
of these cultures has its own way of communicating, its own customs, rites of passage, and
artifacts. This broader interpretation of ethnography and culture is being used more often in
research today.
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Using ethnography, the researcher's responsibility is to describe the unique and distinctive
processes or rules of behavior of the subculture or culture with the primary aim of further
understanding and communication. The important concept in ethnographic research design is the
emphasis on obtaining an emic, rather than etic, perspective. An emic perspective is the cultural
member's, insiders, or native's point of view or perspective (9). This perspective is essential as it
prevents the imposition of the values and beliefs of researchers and other outsiders. The outsider,
or etic, perspective has been prevalent for too long both in health care and in research (10).
Ethnography is often very time consuming and intense for the researcher as data collection
involves ongoing immersion in the culture and participant observation.
Narrative Enquiry
Narrative inquiry is a broadly determined and interpreted research design that involves individual
narrative accounts and the interpretation of their meaning (10-11). Narrative accounts can be
obtained from a number of groups including patients, family, and caregivers. In narrative
inquiry, the researcher studies the lives and experiences of individuals or groups by asking them
to talk about or story their experiences. The resultant narratives are analyzed within and across
individuals and then re-told or re-storied by the researcher (3). The primary aim of narrative
inquiry is to listen and question earlier assumptions. For example, children are typically
understood through adult proxy, usually their parents. When children themselves are asked about
their experiences, their narrative accounts are often quite different. The same can be said of
patients and others in the same room. Individuals are purposively selected for participation in
narrative inquiry studies based on the research focus and criterion under study. The numbers of
participants vary and depend on the overall focus and scope of the study and the amount of
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information gained from each narrative account. Narratives are analyzed individually and then
across participants until a meta-narrative or overall story is synthesized and the re-told by the
researcher. The researcher looks at what is said and the analysis appears very similar to the
thematic analysis used in phenomenology. However, when narratives are examined for their
structure, the researcher looks at how the story is constructed and told. Through this process,
researchers examine what details are prioritized, reiterated, emphasized, and/or left out looking
not so much at the story itself, but at why the story was told in this particular way. Narratives can
be examined for their content and/or structure.
Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research
BASIS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
COMPARISON
Meaning Qualitative research is a method Quantitative research is a research
of inquiry that develops method that is used to generate
understanding on human and numerical data and hard facts, by
social sciences, to find the way employing statistical, logical and
people think and feel. mathematical technique.
Nature Holistic Particularistic
Approach Subjective Objective
Research type Exploratory Conclusive
Reasoning Inductive Deductive
Sampling Purposive Random
Data Verbal Measurable
Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented
Hypothesis Generated Tested
Elements of Words, pictures and objects Numerical data
analysis
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Objective To explore and discover ideas To examine cause and effect
used in the ongoing processes. relationship between variables.
Methods Non-structured techniques like In- Structured techniques such as surveys,
depth interviews, group questionnaires and observations.
discussions etc.
Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action
Conclusion
The research design is the blue print of the research. A major purpose of the design is to ensure
that the adequate data collection method is applied. The design will set up how the experiment
will go. It determines the dependent and independent variables in the study. There are many
different research designs that can be used. Some of these designs include: descriptive, correlation,
experimental, and review. Qualitative and/or quantitative research methods can be used to collect
data for the studies. For a study to be valid, there must internal and external variable-related
validity factors. The internal validity is when an efficient test of the hypothesis has been done.
External validity is when the research can be applied to things outside of the study or in other
studies. Usually, a study that contains high internal validity will have a low external validity.
There are several strengths and limitations to experimental research.
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References
Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Designing Quantitative studies, 8, 182-189, 197-201,
204-207. Qualitative Research Design and Approaches, 11, 265-272.
John Maltby_et_al_Research Methods, 2, 44-60, 64-79
Nursing Research Reading, Using and Creating Evidences (2018). Selecting an appropriate
research design, 6, 154-162
Foundations of Nursing Research seventh edition. Quantitative Research Design, 9, 130-142.
Qualitative Research Design, 10, 151-157.
Research Methods in Nursing. Research Design, 37-41.
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