Example 5.

Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 50 km/h for

a) Two way traffic on a two lane road

b) Two way traffic on a single plane road

Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37 and reaction time of driver as 25 seconds

Solution

To calculate the safe stopping sight distance, we need to consider the perception-reaction time, braking
distance, and the required distance to stop the vehicle.

a) For two-way traffic on a two-lane road:

1. Perception-Reaction Time (PRT): Given as 2.5 seconds.

2. Braking Distance (BD): To calculate braking distance, we use the formula BD = (V^2) / (2 * g * f), where
V is the design speed in m/s (50 km/h = 13.89 m/s), g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s^2), and
f is the coefficient of friction (0.37).

Plugging the values, we get BD = (13.89^2) / (2 * 9.81 * 0.37) = 13.75 meters.

3. Required Stopping Distance (RSD): Given by RSD = PRT * V, where PRT is the perception-reaction time
and V is the design speed in m/s.

Plugging the values, we get RSD = 2.5 * 13.89 = 34.73 meters.

4. Safe Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): The SSD is the sum of Braking Distance (BD) and Required
Stopping Distance (RSD).

Plugging the values, we get SSD = BD + RSD = 13.75 + 34.73 = 48.48 meters.

Therefore, the safe stopping sight distance for two-way traffic on a two-lane road at a design speed of
50 km/h is approximately 48.48 meters.

b) For two-way traffic on a single-lane road:

The calculation remains the same as in part (a) because the perception-reaction time and coefficient of
friction are constant. Therefore, the safe stopping sight distance for two-way traffic on a single-lane road
at a design speed of 50 km/h would also be approximately 48.48 meters.

Example 5.3
Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of two cars approaching from
the opposite directions at 90 and 60km/h assuming a reaction time of 2.5 seconds, coefficient friction of
0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent, in either case

Solution

To calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head-on collision, we need to consider the
time it takes for the vehicles to react and come to a stop.

Let's start by calculating the stopping distance for each car:

Car 1 (traveling at 90 km/h):

First, we convert the speed from km/h to m/s:

90 km/h = (90 * 1000) m / (60 * 60) s = 25 m/s

Using the formula for stopping distance:

Stopping distance = (initial velocity^2) / (2 * friction * brake efficiency)

Stopping distance = (25^2) / (2 * 0.7 * 0.5) = 102.04 meters

Car 2 (traveling at 60 km/h):

Again, we convert the speed from km/h to m/s:

60 km/h = (60 * 1000) m / (60 * 60) s = 16.67 m/s

Stopping distance = (16.67^2) / (2 * 0.7 * 0.5) = 37.37 meters

Now we can calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a collision by adding the stopping
distances of both cars and the reaction distance:

Reaction distance = reaction time * car 1 velocity

Reaction distance = 2.5 seconds * 25 m/s = 62.5 meters

Minimum sight distance = stopping distance of car 1 + stopping distance of car 2 + reaction distance

Minimum sight distance = 102.04 meters + 37.37 meters + 62.5 meters = 201.91 meters

Therefore, the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head-on collision of the two cars is
approximately 201.91 meters.

Example 5.4

Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed of
80 km/h. Assume other data as per IRC recommendations.
Solution

To calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed
of 80 km/h, you can use the formula recommended by the Indian Road Congress (IRC). The formula is as
follows:

Stopping Sight Distance = Perception Distance + Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

1. Perception Distance: The time it takes for a driver to perceive a hazard and react to it. For this, you
can assume it as 2.5 seconds.

Perception Distance = Design Speed * Perception Time

Perception Distance = (80 km/h) * (2.5 seconds)

Perception Distance = 200 meters

2. Reaction Distance: The distance traveled during the driver's reaction time. It depends on the design
speed and can be calculated using the formula:

Reaction Distance = Design Speed * Driver Reaction Time

Assuming the driver reaction time as 2 seconds:

Reaction Distance = (80 km/h) * (2 seconds)

Reaction Distance = 44 meters

3. Braking Distance: The distance traveled during the vehicle's deceleration until it comes to a complete
stop. On a descending gradient, the braking distance is calculated as follows:

Braking Distance = (Speed^2) / (2 * Deceleration)

Here, deceleration can be calculated using the formula:

Deceleration = Grade * g

Where Grade is the gradient (2% or 0.02) and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s^2).

Deceleration = (0.02) * (9.8 m/s^2)

Deceleration = 0.196 m/s^2

Braking Distance = (80 km/h)^2 / (2 * 0.196 m/s^2)

Braking Distance = (80 * 1000 m/3600 s)^2 / (2 * 0.196 m/s^2)

Braking Distance = 264.59 meters

Now, we can calculate the Stopping Sight Distance by adding the perception distance, reaction distance,
and braking distance.

To calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed
of 80 km/h, you can use the formula recommended by the Indian Road Congress (IRC). The formula is as
follows:

Stopping Sight Distance = Perception Distance + Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

1. Perception Distance: The time it takes for a driver to perceive a hazard and react to it. For this, you
can assume it as 2.5 seconds.

Perception Distance = Design Speed * Perception Time

Perception Distance = (80 km/h) * (2.5 seconds)

Perception Distance = 200 meters

2. Reaction Distance: The distance traveled during the driver's reaction time. It depends on the design
speed and can be calculated using the formula:

Reaction Distance = Design Speed * Driver Reaction Time

Assuming the driver reaction time as 2 seconds:

Reaction Distance = (80 km/h) * (2 seconds)

Reaction Distance = 44 meters

3. Braking Distance: The distance traveled during the vehicle's deceleration until it comes to a complete
stop. On a descending gradient, the braking distance is calculated as follows:

Braking Distance = (Speed^2) / (2 * Deceleration)

Here, deceleration can be calculated using the formula:

Deceleration = Grade * g

Where Grade is the gradient (2% or 0.02) and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s^2).

Deceleration = (0.02) * (9.8 m/s^2)

Deceleration = 0.196 m/s^2

Braking Distance = (80 km/h)^2 / (2 * 0.196 m/s^2)

Braking Distance = (80 * 1000 m/3600 s)^2 / (2 * 0.196 m/s^2)

Braking Distance = 264.59 meters

Now, we can calculate the Stopping Sight Distance by adding the perception distance, reaction distance,
and braking distance.

Stopping Sight Distance = Perception Distance + Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

Stopping Sight Distance = 200 meters + 44 meters + 264.59 meters

Stopping Sight Distance = 508.59 meters

Therefore, the stopping sight distance on a highway with a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed
of 80 km/h is approximately 508.59 meters.Stopping Sight Distance = Perception Distance + Reaction
Distance + Braking Distance

Stopping Sight Distance = 200 meters + 44 meters + 264.59 meters

Stopping Sight Distance = 508.59 meters

Therefore, the stopping sight distance on a highway with a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed
of 80 km/h is approximately 508.59 meters.

Example 5.5

Calculate the values of (1) Head light sight distance and (ii) Intermediate sight distance for a highway
with a design speed of 65 km/h. Assume suitably all the data required. Taking t=2s, f=0.5, h=5cm

Solution

To calculate the values of headlight sight distance and intermediate sight distance for a highway with a
design speed of 65 km/h, we can use the following formulas:

1) Headlight sight distance (S):

S = (V * t) + (V² / (254 * f))

Where:

V is the design speed in km/h,

t is the perception-reaction time in seconds (assumed as 2s),

f is the coefficient of friction between the tires and the road surface (assumed as 0.5).

Substituting the given values:

V = 65 km/h
t = 2s

f = 0.5

Calculating the headlight sight distance:

S = (65 * 2) + ((65²) / (254 * 0.5))

S = 130 + (4225 / 127)

S = 130 + 33.27

S = 163.27 meters

Therefore, the headlight sight distance for the highway is approximately 163.27 meters.

2) Intermediate sight distance (I):

I = (h / 0.06) * (V / 1.467)

Where:

h is the height of the object above the road in meters (given as 5 cm, which is 0.05 meters).

Substituting the given values:

h = 0.05 meters

V = 65 km/h

Calculating the intermediate sight distance:

I = (0.05 / 0.06) * (65 / 1.467)

I = 0.833 * 44.366

I = 36.947 meters

Therefore, the intermediate sight distance for the highway is approximately 36.947 meters.

Example 5.6

The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and 40 km/h respectively on a two way traffic
road. If the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/s², a) Calculate the safe overtaking sight
distance b) Mention the minimum length of overtaking zone and c) Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking
zone and show the positions of the sign posts

Solution
To calculate the safe overtaking sight distance, we need to consider the time it takes for the overtaking
vehicle to travel along the length of the overtaken vehicle. Let's begin with part a).

a) Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance:

First, we need to convert the speeds of the vehicles from km/h to m/s.

Speed of overtaking vehicle = 70 km/h = (70 * 1000) / (60 * 60) m/s = 19.44 m/s

Speed of overtaken vehicle = 40 km/h = (40 * 1000) / (60 * 60) m/s = 11.11 m/s

Now, we can calculate the time it takes for the overtaking vehicle to travel the length of the overtaken
vehicle.

Time = Length / Relative speed

Relative speed = Speed of overtaking vehicle - Speed of overtaken vehicle

Relative speed = 19.44 m/s - 11.11 m/s = 8.33 m/s

Let's assume the length of the overtaken vehicle as L meters. Then the time taken by the overtaking
vehicle will be L / 8.33 seconds.

To ensure safe overtaking, the distance required for the overtaking vehicle to clear the overtaken
vehicle completely should be at least equal to the sum of the safe overtaking sight distance and the
distance traveled by the overtaking vehicle during the above time.

Safe overtaking sight distance = Distance traveled by the overtaking vehicle during L / 8.33 seconds

Since the overtaking vehicle initially moves from rest, the distance traveled during this time can

be calculated using the kinematic equation:

Distance = (Initial velocity * time) + (0.5 * acceleration * time^2)

Here, the initial velocity is 0 m/s, the acceleration is 0.99 m/s², and the time is L / 8.33 seconds.

Substituting these values, we have:

Safe overtaking sight distance = (0 * (L / 8.33)) + (0.5 * 0.99 * (L / 8.33)^2)

Simplifying the equation, we get:

Safe overtaking sight distance = (0.5 * 0.99 * (L^2)) / (8.33^2)

Therefore, the safe overtaking sight distance is (0.5 * 0.99 * (L^2)) / (8.33^2) meters.

Moving on to part b) - to determine the minimum length of the overtaking zone:

The minimum length of the overtaking zone is the sum of the safe overtaking sight distance and the
length of the overtaken vehicle.

Minimum length of overtaking zone = Safe overtaking sight distance + Length of the overtaken vehicle

Now let's proceed to part c) - drawing a neat sketch of the overtaking zone and showing the positions of
the sign posts.

Unfortunately, as a text-based AI model, I cannot provide a visual sketch. However, I can describe the
sketch for you. Imagine a straight road with two lanes, one for each direction of traffic. In the diagram,
there will be two vehicles shown, one overtaking the other. The overtaking vehicle will be positioned
partially in the opposite lane to indicate overtaking, while the overtaken vehicle will be completely
within its own lane. The sign posts can be added at suitable intervals along the road to indicate any
necessary regulations or warnings.

Remember to always follow traffic rules and regulations when attempting overtaking maneuvers,
ensuring the safety of all road users involved.

Example 5.7

The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100 m. the design speed is 50km/h and the design coefficient
of lateral friction is 0.15. a) Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop b) Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is provided c) Calculate the
equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and outer wheels should be equal

Solution

a) To calculate the safe overtaking sight distance, we need to consider the time required for the
overtaking vehicle to complete the overtaking maneuver.

First, let's convert the speeds from km/h to m/s:

Speed of overtaking vehicle (V1) = 70 km/h = 19.44 m/s

Speed of overtaken vehicle (V2) = 40 km/h = 11.11 m/s

The time required for the overtaking maneuver can be calculated using the following equation:

Time = (V1 - V2) / acceleration

Substituting the given values:

Time = (19.44 m/s - 11.11 m/s) / 0.99 m/s²

Time = 8.33 s

The safe overtaking sight distance (S) can be calculated using the equation:
S = (V1 + V2) / 2 * Time

Substituting the given values:

S = (19.44 m/s + 11.11 m/s) / 2 * 8.33 s

S = 146.53 m

Therefore, the safe overtaking sight distance is approximately 146.53 meters.

b) The minimum length of the overtaking zone can be determined by multiplying the safe overtaking
sight distance by a factor of 3. This factor accounts for the distance required for the driver to perceive,
decide, and act upon the overtaking opportunity.

Minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 * Safe overtaking sight distance

Minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 * 146.53 m

Minimum length of overtaking zone = 439.59 m

Therefore, the minimum length of the overtaking zone is approximately 439.59 meters.

c) Unfortunately, as a text-based AI, I am unable to draw a sketch. However, I can describe how the
overtaking zone should be set up and the positions of the sign posts.

The overtaking zone should have a broken center line, indicating that it is safe to overtake when it is
clear from the oncoming traffic. The length of the overtaking zone should be the minimum length
calculated in part (b), i.e., approximately 439.59 meters.

The sign posts should be placed at appropriate intervals along the overtaking zone to provide guidance
and information to drivers. Typically, sign posts indicating "Overtaking Zone Ahead," "No Overtaking,"
and "End of Overtaking Zone" should be placed to alert drivers about the start and end of the overtaking
zone.

It is important to consult the relevant traffic regulations and guidelines to ensure the proper placement
and positioning of sign posts and markings for the specific road or jurisdiction.

Example 5.8

A two lane road with design speed of 80 km/h has horizontal curve of radius 480 m. design the me of
superelevation for mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the pavement be raised with
respect to the centre line, if the pavement is rotated with respect to the centre line and the wutt of the
pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5 m

Solution

To design the rate of superelevation for the given horizontal curve on a two-lane road with a design
speed of 80 km/h, we can use the following formula:
E = V^2 / (127R)

Where,

E is the superelevation,

V is the design speed in km/h, and

R is the radius of the curve in meters.

Plugging in the values from the example, we have:

V = 80 km/h and R = 480 m.

Now, let's calculate the superelevation:

E = (80^2) / (127 * 480)

E = 6400 / 60960

E ≈ 0.105

So, the superelevation needed for this horizontal curve is approximately 0.105.

Next, to find the amount by which the outer edges of the pavement should be raised with respect to the
center line, we need to consider the width of the pavement at the horizontal curve.

Given that the width of the pavement at the curve is 7.5 m, the difference in elevation between the
outer edges and the center line can be determined using the following formula:

Difference in elevation = superelevation * width of pavement

Plugging in the values, we have:

Difference in elevation = 0.105 * 7.5

Difference in elevation ≈ 0.788 meters

Therefore, the outer edges of the pavement should be raised approximately 0.788 meters with respect
to the center line to accommodate the superelevation required for this horizontal curve.

Example 5.9

Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500 m and speed 100 km/h

Solution

To design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve, we can use the formula for the
design of superelevation on highways, taking into account the radius of the curve and the design speed.
The formula for the design of superelevation (e) is given by:

e = (V^2)/(g · R)

Where:

- e = Superelevation

- V = Design speed (in the same units as g)

- g = Gravitational acceleration (approximately 9.81 m/s²)

- R = Radius of the curve

Given:

- Radius of the curve (R) = 500 m

- Design speed (V) = 100 km/h

Converting the Speed

First, we should convert the design speed from kilometers per hour to meters per second (m/s) since the
units of speed and gravitational acceleration should be consistent.

V = 100 km/h

V = (100 × 1000)/3600 m/s

V ≈ 27.78 m/s

Calculating the Superelevation

Now, plugging the values into the formula:

e = ((27.78)^2)/(9.81 × 500)

Let's simplify:

e = (771.3284)/4905

e ≈ 0.157

Rounding to three decimal places, the rate of superelevation for the horizontal highway curve is
approximately 0.157, or 15.7
This means that, in order to avoid side forces on vehicles during the curve, the highway should be
banked at an angle such that the outside edge of the curve is higher than the inside edge. This design is
crucial for the safety and comfort of drivers navigating the curve at the given speed.

Example 5.10

The design speed of a highway is 80 km/h there is a horizontal curve of radius 200 m on a certais
locality. Calculate the superelevation needed to maintain this speed. If the maximum superelevations of
0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not
possible to increase the radius. Safe limit of the transverse coefficient of friction is 0.15

Solution

To calculate the superelevation needed to maintain a given speed and then determine the maximum
allowable speed on a horizontal curve, we can use the formula for calculating the superelevation and
then rearrange the formula to solve for the maximum allowable speed.

Calculating Superelevation

The formula for superelevation (e) is given by:

e = (V^2)/(g · R)

Where:

- e = Superelevation

- V = Design speed

- g = Gravitational acceleration (approximately 9.81 m/s²)

- R = Radius of the curve

Given:

- Design speed (V) = 80 km/h

- Radius of the curve (R) = 200 m

Step 1: Calculating Superelevation

First, we need to convert the speed to meters per second (m/s):

V = 80 km/h

V = (80 × 1000)/3600 m/s

V ≈ 22.22 m/s
Now, we can calculate the superelevation:

e = ((22.22)^2)/(9.81 × 200)

e = (493.432)/1962

e ≈ 0.252

Step 2: Determining Maximum Allowable Speed

Now, let's rearrange the superelevation formula to solve for the maximum allowable speed:

V = √(e · g · R)

Given:

- Maximum superelevation (e_max) = 0.07

- Gravitational acceleration (g) = 9.81 m/s²

- Radius of the curve (R) = 200 m

V = √(0.07 · 9.81 · 200)

V = √(137.34)

V ≈ 11.71 m/s

Converting back to kilometers per hour:

V ≈ 11.71 ×3600/1000 km/h

V ≈ 42.2 km/h

The maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve, given the limitations of maximum
superelevation and the coefficient of friction, is approximately 42.2 km/h.

Example 5.11

A Major District Road with thin bituminous pavement surface in low rainfall area has horizontal curve of
radius 1400 m. if the design speed is 65 km/h, what should be the superelevation? Discuss

Solution

The superelevation needed for a road with a specific radius and design speed can be calculated using a
standard formula while also considering design standards and safety requirements.

Calculating Superelevation

The formula for superelevation (e) is given by:

 e = (V^2)/(g · R)

Where:

- e = Superelevation

- V = Design speed

- g = Gravitational acceleration (approximately 9.81 m/s²)

- R = Radius of the curve

Given:

- Design speed (V) = 65 km/h

- Radius of the curve (R) = 1400 m

Step 1: Calculating Superelevation

First, we need to convert the speed to meters per second (m/s):

V = 65 km/h

V = (65 × 1000)/3600 m/s

V ≈ 18.06 m/s

Now, we can calculate the superelevation:

e = ((18.06)^2)/(9.81 × 1400)

e = (325.8336)/13734

e ≈ 0.024

Discussion

The calculated superelevation (e) is approximately 0.024, or 2.4

Based on standard design criteria and highway engineering principles, the superelevation achieved
under the given design speed and curve radius generally falls within safe and efficient limits. It's
important to note that the design of superelevation aims to counteract the lateral acceleration force
experienced by vehicles when traveling around curves at high speeds, thereby enhancing safety and
comfort for the road users.
In actual road design practice, the superelevation needs to comply with specific design standards and
regulations. Furthermore, the uniform transition of superelevation along the curve, known as the
"transition spiral," is crucial to avoid abrupt changes in banking, ensuring a smooth and safe transition
for vehicles entering and exiting the curve. The actual construction of superelevation also needs to
consider various factors such as drainage, pavement integrity, and maintaining adequate sight distances
for safe operation.

In implementing the calculated superelevation, it's essential to adhere to national or regional standards
as well as conducting thorough engineering assessments to ensure that the road geometry meets the
necessary safety and operational requirements.

Example 5.12

Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve of a National
Highway in plain terrain. Assume ruling design speed and minimum design speed values as 100 and 80
km/h respectively.

Solution

When designing horizontal curves for highways in plain terrain, it is essential to calculate the values for
ruling minimum radius and absolute minimum radius based on the specified design speeds. These values
determine the geometric layout of the roadway to ensure safe and efficient operation.

Ruling Minimum Radius

The ruling minimum radius (Rr) for a horizontal curve is determined based on the ruling design speed,
which represents the highest design speed for the particular roadway section.

The ruling minimum radius (Rr) can be calculated using the formula:

Rr = (V^2)/(127 · f)

Where:

- Rr = Ruling minimum radius (in meters)

- V = Ruling design speed (in km/h)

- f = Coefficient of lateral friction (typically taken as 0.15 for plain terrain)

Given:

- Ruling design speed V = 100 km/h

- Coefficient of lateral friction f = 0.15

Plugging in these values, we get:

Rr = (100^2)/(127 · 0.15)

Rr = 10000/(19.05)

Rr ≈ 525.91 m

Absolute Minimum Radius

The absolute minimum radius (Ra) is based on the minimum design speed, which represents the lowest
anticipated safe operating speed for the roadway section.

The absolute minimum radius (Ra) for a horizontal curve can be calculated using the formula:

Ra = (V^2)/(254 · f)

Where:

- Ra = Absolute minimum radius (in meters)

- V = Minimum design speed (in km/h)

- f = Coefficient of lateral friction

Given:

- Minimum design speed V = 80 km/h

- Coefficient of lateral friction f = 0.15

Plugging in these values, we get:

Ra = (80^2)/(254 · 0.15)

Ra = 6400/(38.1)

Ra ≈ 168.25 m

Summary

The ruling minimum radius for the horizontal curve of the National Highway in plain terrain is
approximately 525.91 meters, based on a ruling design speed of 100 km/h.

The absolute minimum radius for the horizontal curve is approximately 168.25 meters, based on a
minimum design speed of 80 km/h.

These calculated values provide critical insights for the geometric design and layout of horizontal curves,
ensuring safe and efficient traffic operation on the National Highway, particularly in plain terrains.
Example 5.13

Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7 m on a horizontal curve of radius 250 m
if the longest wheel base of vehicle expected on the road is 7 m. design speed is 70 km/h compare the
value obtained with the IRC recommendations

Solution

To calculate the extra widening required for a pavement on a horizontal curve, we can use the formula
to account for the additional width needed for comfortable and safe navigation by vehicles, especially
considering the longest expected wheelbase.

Extra Widening Required

The extra widening required for a pavement on a horizontal curve can be calculated using the formula:

EW = W - √(W^2 - (L - R)^2)

Where:

- EW = Extra widening required

- W = Pavement width

- L = Length of the vehicle (in this case, the longest wheelbase)

- R = Radius of the curve

Given:

- Pavement width W = 7 m

- Length of the vehicle L = 7 m

- Radius of the curve R = 250 m

Plugging in the values, we get:

EW = 7 - √(7^2 - (7 - 250)^2)

EW = 7 - √(49 - 48441)

EW = 7 - √(-48492)

This leads to taking the square root of a negative number, which is not possible, indicating that an extra
widening in this scenario is not feasible.

Comparison with IRC Recommendations

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) provides guidelines for geometric design and road construction.
According to IRC recommendations, the practical limits for extra widening required for a pavement on a
horizontal curve are determined based on vehicle characteristics, design speed, and radius of the curve,
among other factors.

In cases where the calculated extra widening seems impractical or violates standard safety
considerations, it's essential to evaluate mitigation measures such as reducing the design speed, altering
the alignment, implementing banking on the curve, or considering other alternative engineering
solutions to ensure safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road.

Given the infeasibility of extra widening as per the calculation, it becomes crucial to review the design
and possibly consider adjustments based on practical and standard safety recommendations, including
those stipulated by the IRC.

Example 5.14

Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for a new National Highway to be aligned
along a rolling terrain with a ruling minimum radius. Assume necessary data

Solution

To calculate the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for a new National Highway aligned
along a rolling terrain, we need to consider several factors including design speed, radius of the curve,
and additional width for superelevation.

Necessary Data

In order to perform this calculation, the following data is necessary:

1. Ruling minimum radius for the curve (Rr)

2. Design speed for the National Highway

3. Coefficient of lateral friction for the rolling terrain

4. Additional width required for superelevation (if not already included in the ruling minimum radius)

Calculating Total Width

The total width of the pavement can be calculated based on the necessary clear width required for a
road curve. This width includes the main carriageway, shoulder width, and additional width required for
superelevation.

The total width (Wt) typically consists of the following components:

- Main carriageway width

- Shoulder width (inner and outer)

- Extra widening for superelevation

The main carriageway and shoulder width components of the pavement width can be determined based
on factors such as traffic volume, vehicle types, and safety considerations.

Superelevation Widening

In addition to the main roadway and shoulder width, it's important to account for any additional
widening required for superelevation in the rolling terrain. The extra widening needed for
superelevation ensures that vehicles have adequate space to travel comfortably and safely along the
curved path.

Summary

The total width of the pavement for a new National Highway along a rolling terrain with a ruling
minimum radius should consider all pertinent factors to ensure safe and efficient operation. Each
component of the total width, including carriageway, shoulder, and superelevation widening, needs to
be carefully calculated to meet the necessary safety and operational requirements, particularly
considering the design speed and the geometric conditions of the terrain.

To proceed with a specific calculation, the exact data regarding the ruling minimum radius, design
speed, and other pertinent factors for the particular National Highway project would be required to
accurately determine the total width of the pavement for the horizontal curve.

Example 5.15

Calculate the length of transition curve and the shift using the following data Design speed 65 km/h
Radius of circular curvature 220 m Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation (pavement rotated
about the centre line) = 1 in 150

Solution

To calculate the length of the transition curve and the shift for the given design speed, radius of circular
curvature, and allowable rate of introduction of superelevation, we can use the necessary formulas to
determine these values.

Length of Transition Curve (L)

The length of the transition curve can be calculated using the formula:

L = (V^2)/(R · e)

Where:

- L = Length of the transition curve

- V = Design speed (in m/s)

- R = Radius of the circular curvature (in meters)

- e = Rate of introduction of superelevation

Given:

- Design speed V = 65 km/h

- Radius of circular curvature R = 220 m

- Rate of introduction of superelevation e = 1 in 150

First, we need to convert the design speed from kilometers per hour to meters per second (m/s):

V = 65 ×1000/3600

V ≈ 18.056 m/s

Now, we can calculate the length of the transition curve:

L = ((18.056)^2)/(220 · (1/150))

L = (325.75)/(220/150)

L = (325.75 × 150)/220

L ≈ 222.41 m

Shift (S)

The shift can be calculated using the formula:

S = (V^2)/(127 · R)

Where:

- S = Shift

- V = Design speed (in m/s)

- R = Radius of the circular curvature (in meters)

Given:

- Design speed V = 65 km/h

- Radius of circular curvature R = 220 m

Plugging in these values, we get:

S = ((18.056)^2)/(127 · 220)

S = (325.75)/27860

S ≈ 0.0117 m

Summary

The calculated length of the transition curve is approximately 222.41 m, and the calculated shift is
approximately 0.0117 m. These values play a crucial role in providing a smooth and safe transition as
vehicles move from straight sections to the curved section of the roadway, particularly considering the
design speed and the allowable rate of introduction of superelevation.

Example 5.16.

A National Highway passing through rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius
500 m. design the length of transition curve assuming suitable data.

Solution

To design the length of a transition curve for a highway with a horizontal curve of radius 500 m, we need
some suitable data. Typically, this data includes the maximum allowable rate of change of lateral
acceleration (A) and the design speed (V) of the highway.

Let's assume that the maximum allowable rate of change of lateral acceleration (A) is 0.08 m/s², and the
design speed (V) is 80 km/h (or 22.22 m/s).

To calculate the length of the transition curve, we can use the formula:

L = V² / (A * R)

Where:

L = Length of the transition curve

V = Design speed of the highway

A = Maximum allowable rate of change of lateral acceleration

R = Radius of the horizontal curve

Plugging in the values, we get:

L = (22.22 m/s)² / (0.08 m/s² * 500 m)

Simplifying the equation, we get:

L = 554.42 m

Therefore, the length of the transition curve for this particular highway would be approximately 554.42
meters.

Example 5.17
While aligning a highway in a built up area, it was necessary to provide a horizontal direction curve of
radius 325 metre. Design the following geometric features (1)Superelevation(2) Extra widening of
pavement (3)Length of transition curve. Data available are Design speed 65 km/h, Length of wheel base
of largest truck 6 m. Pavement width 10.5m
Solution

To calculate the geometric features for the given highway alignment, we can use the following formulas:

1) Superelevation:

Superelevation (e) = (V^2) / (127R)

Where:

- V is the design speed in meters per second (V = 65 km/h * 1000 m/km * 1/3600 h/s)

- R is the radius of the horizontal curve in meters

Plugging in the values:

V = 65 km/h * 1000 m/km * 1/3600 h/s ≈ 18.06 m/s

R = 325 m

Superelevation (e) = (18.06^2) / (127 * 325)

2) Extra Widening of Pavement:

Extra widening of pavement (W) = (V^2 * B) / (127R)

Where:

- B is the width of the pavement

Plugging in the values:

B = 10.5 m

Extra widening of pavement (W) = (18.06^2 * 10.5) / (127 * 325)

3) Length of Transition Curve:

Length of transition curve (L) = (V^2) / (127a)

Where:

- a is the rate of change of superelevation per unit length of curve (typically 0.06 m/km for highways)

Plugging in the values:

a = 0.06 m/km

Length of transition curve (L) = (18.06^2) / (127 * 0.06)

Example 5.18

A State Highway passing through a rolling terrain has a horizontal curve of radius equal to the ruling
minimum radius. (i) Design all the geometric features of this curve, assuming suitable data. (ii) Specity
the minimum set-back distance from the centre line of the two lane highway on the inner side of the
curve up to which the buildings etc. obstructing vision should not be constructed so that Intermediate
sight distance is available throughout the circular curve. Assume the length of circular curve greater than
the sight distance

Solution

To design the geometric features of the horizontal curve, we need to consider the ruling minimum
radius and assume suitable data. Let's assume the ruling minimum radius is 200 meters for this example.

(i) Geometric Features of the Curve:

1. Radius of the curve: The radius of the curve is given as 200 meters.

2. Length of the curve: The length of the curve can be calculated using the formula L = R * θ, where R is
the radius and θ is the angle subtended by the curve. Since the length of the curve is assumed to be
greater than the sight distance, we'll assume a length of 300 meters for this example.

3. Degree of curvature: The degree of curvature is calculated using the formula D = 5730 / R, where R is
the radius in meters. In this case, D = 5730 / 200 = 28.65 degrees.

4. Tangent length: The tangent length is the straight portion of the road before and after the curve. It is
usually designed to be at least equal to the sight distance. Let's assume the sight distance is 150 meters
for this example. So, the tangent length will be 150 meters on each side of the curve.

5. External distance (E): The external distance is the distance from the centerline of the curve to the
outer edge of the road. It is calculated using the formula E = R + (T / 2), where T is the width of the road.
Assuming a road width of 7 meters, E = 200 + (7 / 2) = 203.5 meters.

6. Internal distance (I): The internal distance is the distance from the centerline of the curve to the inner
edge of the road. It is calculated using the formula I = R - (T / 2), where T is the width of the road.
Assuming a road width of 7 meters, I = 200 - (7 / 2) = 196.5 meters.
(ii) Minimum Set-back Distance:

To ensure intermediate sight distance is available throughout the circular curve, buildings or any
obstructions that could block the driver's vision should not be constructed within a certain distance from
the centerline of the road. Let's assume the minimum set-back distance is 50 meters for this example.

So, the minimum set-back distance from the centerline of the road on the inner side of the curve, up to
which buildings or obstructions should not be constructed, is 50 meters.

Remember, these values are just assumptions for the purpose of explaining the concept. In real-life road
design, these values would be determined based on specific requirements, regulations, and site
conditions.

Example 5.19

There is a horizontal highway curve of radius 400 m and length 200 m on this highway. Compute the set-
back distances required from the centre line on the inner side of the curve so as to provide for (i)
stopping sight distance of 90 m (ii) safe overtaking sight distance of 300 m The distance between the
centre lines of the road and the inner lane is 1.9 m.

Solution

To calculate the set-back distances required on the inner side of the curve, we need to consider the
stopping sight distance and safe overtaking sight distance. Let's calculate these distances and the
corresponding set-back distances:

(i) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):

The stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required for a driver to bring their vehicle to a safe
stop if an obstacle appears on the road. In this case, the stopping sight distance is given as 90 meters.

1. Calculate the tangent length (T):

The tangent length is the straight portion of the road before and after the curve. Let's assume the
tangent length is equal to the stopping sight distance, so T = 90 meters.

2. Calculate the external distance (E):

The external distance is the distance from the centerline of the curve to the outer edge of the road. It is
calculated using the formula E = R + (T / 2), where R is the radius of the curve and T is the tangent
length. In this case, R = 400 meters and T = 90 meters.

E = 400 + (90 / 2) = 445 meters.

3. Calculate the set-back distance (S):

The set-back distance is the distance from the centerline of the road on the inner side of the curve, up to
which buildings or obstructions should not be constructed.

S = E - (1.9 + T) = 445 - (1.9 + 90) = 353.1 meters.

Therefore, the set-back distance required for the stopping sight distance of 90 meters is 353.1 meters.

(ii) Safe Overtaking Sight Distance (SOSD):

The safe overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance required for a driver to overtake a vehicle
safely. In this case, the safe overtaking sight distance is given as 300 meters.

1. Calculate the tangent length (T):

Let's assume the tangent length is equal to the safe overtaking sight distance, so T = 300 meters.

2. Calculate the external distance (E):

Using the same formula as before, E = R + (T / 2) = 400 + (300 / 2) = 550 meters.

3. Calculate the set-back distance (S):

S = E - (1.9 + T) = 550 - (1.9 + 300) = 248.1 meters.

Therefore, the set-back distance required for the safe overtaking sight distance of 300 meters is 248.1
meters.

Please note that these calculations are based on the given data and assumptions. In real-life road design,
additional factors and regulations may need to be considered.

Example 5.20

A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients; +3 and -5 percent Design the
length of summit curve to provide a stopping sight distance for a design speed of 80km/h. Assume other
data. Example 5.21

Solution

In order to design the length of the summit curve, we need to calculate the stopping sight distance (SSD)
first. The stopping sight distance is the distance required for a vehicle to come to a complete stop,
considering the driver's reaction time and the braking distance.

To calculate the SSD, we can use the formula:

SSD = (0.278 * V * T) + (V^2 / (2 * a))

Where:

- V is the design speed in meters per second (80 km/h = 22.22 m/s).
- T is the driver's reaction time (assumed to be 2.5 seconds).

- a is the deceleration rate of the vehicle (assumed to be 3 m/s^2).

Now, let's plug in the values into the formula:

SSD = (0.278 * 22.22 * 2.5) + (22.22^2 / (2 * 3))

After calculating, we find that the SSD is approximately 100.74 meters.

To design the length of the summit curve, we need to consider the distance required for the vehicle to
stop on the uphill grade (+3 percent gradient) and the distance required to stop on the downhill grade (-
5 percent gradient). The longer distance between the two will determine the required length of the
summit curve.

To calculate the distance required to stop on the uphill grade, we can use the formula:

Distance = SSD - (Length of Grade * Gradient)

For the uphill grade:

Distance = 100.74 - (Length of Grade * 0.03)

For the downhill grade:

Distance = 100.74 - (Length of Grade * -0.05)

We want to find the length of the summit curve, so we set the two distances equal to each other and
solve for Length of Grade:

100.74 - (Length of Grade * 0.03) = 100.74 - (Length of Grade * -0.05)

Simplifying the equation, we get:

0.03 * Length of Grade = 0.05 * Length of Grade

This means that the lengths of the two grades don't affect the length of the summit curve. In this case,
the length of the summit curve will be determined by other factors, such as the visibility and safety
requirements.

So, for this specific example (5.20), we cannot determine the required length of the summit curve based
on the given information.

Example 5.21

An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120 A summit curve is to be

designed for a speed of 80 km/h so as to have an overtaking sight distance of 470 m.

Solution
To solve this problem, we need to use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the summit curve.
Let's break it down step by step:

1. First, let's calculate the lengths of the ascending and descending gradients.

For the ascending gradient of 1 in 100, we can use the formula: length = (rise / gradient) * 100.

Since the rise is 1 (1 unit), the length of the ascending gradient is (1 / 1) * 100 = 100 units.

For the descending gradient of 1 in 120, we can use the same formula.

Since the rise is 1 (1 unit), the length of the descending gradient is (1 / 1) * 120 = 120 units.

2. Next, let's calculate the length of the summit curve.

To do this, we will use the Pythagorean theorem. Let's assume the length of the summit curve is 'x'. We
know that the overtaking sight distance is 470 meters, so we can use the formula: x^2 = (length of
ascending gradient)^2 + (length of descending gradient)^2 + (overtaking sight distance)^2.

Substituting the values we calculated earlier, the formula becomes: x^2 = 100^2 + 120^2 + 470^2.

3. Now, let's solve for 'x'.

Using a calculator, we can calculate the right side of the equation: 100^2 + 120^2 + 470^2 = 10,000 +
14,400 + 220,900 = 245,300.

Therefore, the equation becomes: x^2 = 245,300.

To find 'x', we need to take the square root of both sides of the equation. Taking the square root of
245,300 gives us approximately 495.27.

So, the length of the summit curve is approximately 495.27 meters.

This means that when designing the summit curve for a speed of 80 km/h, it should have a length of
about 495.27 meters to provide an overtaking sight distance of 470 meters.

Example 5.22

A vertical summit curve is to be designed when two grades, +1/50 and -1/80 meet on a highway. The
stopping sight distance and overtaking sight distance required are 180 m and 640 m respectively. But
due to site conditions, the length of vertical curve has to be restricted to a maximum value of 500 m if
possible Calculate the length of summit curve needed to fulfill the requirements of a. Stopping sight
distance b. Overtaking sight distance or at least intermediate sight distance and discuss the results.

Solution
To solve this problem, we need to calculate the length of the summit curve needed to fulfill the
requirements of both the stopping sight distance and the overtaking sight distance. Let's break it down
step by step:

a) Stopping Sight Distance:

To calculate the length of the summit curve needed for the stopping sight distance, we need to use the
formula:

Length = [(Stopping sight distance)^2 / (2 * grade difference)] - (Stopping sight distance / 2)

1. First, let's calculate the grade difference.

The grade difference is the difference between the two grades: +1/50 and -1/80.

To get a common denominator, we can write the grades as +80/4000 and -50/4000.

Therefore, the grade difference is (+80/4000) - (-50/4000) = 130/4000.

2. Next, let's calculate the length of the summit curve for the stopping sight distance.

Using the formula, we have:

Length = [(180)^2 / (2 * 130/4000)] - (180 / 2)

Length = [32400 / (260/4000)] - 90

Length = [32400 * (4000/260)] - 90

Length ≈ 497,538.46 - 90

Length ≈ 497,448.46 meters

b) Overtaking Sight Distance or Intermediate Sight Distance:

To calculate the length of the summit curve needed for the overtaking sight distance or intermediate
sight distance, we can use the same formula as above.

1. First, let's calculate the grade difference.

The grade difference is still the same: 130/4000.

2. Next, let's calculate the length of the summit curve for the overtaking sight distance or intermediate
sight distance.

Using the formula, we have:

Length = [(640)^2 / (2 * 130/4000)] - (640 / 2)

Length = [409600 / (260/4000)] - 320

Length = [409600 * (4000/260)] - 320

Length ≈ 6,304,000 - 320

Length ≈ 6,303,680 meters

Discussion:

Based on the given requirements and the site conditions, the length of the summit curve needed to
fulfill the stopping sight distance is approximately 497,448.46 meters, which is less than the maximum
length of 500 meters. Therefore, it is possible to design a summit curve that meets the stopping sight
distance requirement within the given site conditions.

However, the length of the summit curve needed to fulfill the overtaking sight distance or at least the
intermediate sight distance is approximately 6,303,680 meters, which is significantly larger than the
maximum length of 500 meters. Therefore, it is not possible to design a summit curve that meets the
overtaking sight distance or intermediate sight distance requirement within the given site conditions.

In conclusion, it is possible to design a summit curve that meets the stopping sight distance requirement
within the given site conditions, but it is not possible to design a summit curve that meets the overtaking
sight distance or intermediate sight distance requirement.

Example 2.23

A valley curve is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an ascending grade of 1 in 30 Design

the length of the curve to fulfil both comfort condition and head light sight distance requirements for a
design speed of 80 km/h, assume allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration c 0.6 m/s³

Solution

To design the length of the curve, we need to consider both the comfort condition and the headlight
sight distance requirements. Let's break down the steps:

1. Comfort Condition: The comfort condition ensures that the curve is smooth, so passengers don't feel
uncomfortable. The allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (c) is given as 0.6 m/s³.

2. Headlight Sight Distance: This requirement ensures that drivers have enough visibility on the curve to
see any obstacles or oncoming vehicles. We'll need to calculate the headlight sight distance.

Now, let's proceed with the calculations:

Step 1: Calculate the Headlight Sight Distance (HSD)

The headlight sight distance formula is:

HSD = (V²) / (2g * f)

Where:

V is the design speed in meters per second (80 km/h = 22.2 m/s)

g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)

f is a factor related to the curvature rate of the curve

Step 2: Calculate the Curvature Rate (K)

To calculate the curvature rate, we need the grade of the descending and ascending grades. Given that
the descending grade is 1 in 25 and the ascending grade is 1 in 30, we can find the curvature rate for
each grade:

Curvature Rate for Descending Grade (K1) = 1 / (25 * 100)

Curvature Rate for Ascending Grade (K2) = -1 / (30 * 100)

(Note: The negative sign indicates the reverse direction)

Step 3: Calculate the Total Curvature Rate (K)

To find the total curvature rate, we need to add the curvature rates of the descending and ascending
grades:

Total Curvature Rate (K) = K1 + K2

Step 4: Calculate the Length of the Curve (L)

Now, we can calculate the length of the curve using the comfort condition formula:

L = (V³) / (127 * g * c * K)

Plug in the values and calculate the length of the curve.

I hope this helps you understand the process of designing the length of a curve!