Question 1

(a) Define ‘diffusion of innovation’ and briefly explain the five steps that are involved in
the process of diffusion of innovation. [12]

Answer
Diffusion of innovation is the process by which an innovation is communicated
through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

Process
 Knowledge – person becomes aware of an innovation and has some idea of how
it functions,
 Persuasion – person forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the
innovation,
 Decision – person engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject
the innovation,
 Implementation – person puts an innovation into use,
 Confirmation – person evaluates the results of an innovation-decision already
made.

1(b) Distinguish between validity and reliability in the context of research. [8]
Model Answer

Validity
 refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement.
 Are we measuring what we think we are?

Reliability is synonymous with repeatability.

 A measurement that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable.
 When a measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability.
 A measurement that lacks reliability will necessarily be invalid.

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Question 2
Outline and briefly explain the key elements found in a research proposal. [20]
Model Answer
Introduction
 Provides readers with the background information for the research.
 Establishes a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it
is related to other research

Statement of the Problem

 Describes the context for the study and identifies the general analysis approach

Purpose of the Study

 The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the
overall purpose of the study

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

 A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but
phrases the relationship as a question;
 a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or
more variables
 Deciding to use questions or hypotheses depends on purpose of the study, the
nature of the design and methodology, and the audience of the research

Limitations and Delimitations

 A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study.
 A delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is
bounded.

Significance of the Study

 Indicate how the research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the
area under investigation.

Review of the Literature

 The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research
problem.
 It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is
knowledgeable about the area

The Design--Methods and Procedures

 Indicate the methodological steps to be taken to answer every question or to test
every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section.

References
 All references cited in the text are included in the reference list
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Question 3
(a) Giving examples in each case distinguish between primary and secondary
sources of data and literature. [8]

(b) List and explain four criteria you need to consider in evaluating information
sources. [12]

Model Answer

3(a) Distinguish between primary, secondary sources of data and literature [8]

Primary Source
-Original, first-hand account of an event or time period
-Usually written or made during or close to the event or time period
-Original, creative writing or works of art
-Factual, not interpretive
Secondary Source
-Analyzes and interprets primary sources
-Second-hand account of an historical event
-Interprets creative work

3(b) List and explain four criteria you need to consider in evaluating information
sources. [12]
(i). Authority
-Can you identify the author of the article or book?
-Is the author an expert in the field?
-Is the source an acknowledged authority?
-Can you identify the publisher?
-If so, is this a well-respected or well-known publishing house for the topic being
searched?
(ii) Accuracy
-Are the sources for factual information given so they can be verified?
-Is the information correct?
-Are there inconsistencies in the information, particularly statistical data?
(iii) Objectivity
-Is the presentation objective?
-Or is the viewpoint biased?
(iv) Currency
-Is the material up-to-date?
(v) Coverage
-Is the information presented complete?
-Or is data missing?

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Question 4.

Outline the key stages that should be followed in an Engineering design process. For each
stage, briefly explain the activities involved. [20]

Model Answer
Define the Problem.
 What is the problem or need? Who has the problem or need?Why is it important
to solve?

Background Research
 Learn from the experiences of others to find out about existing solutions to similar
problems, and avoid mistakes that were made in the past.
 Users or customers
 Existing solutions

Specify Requirements
 Design requirements state the important characteristics that the solution must
meet to succeed.
 analyze the concrete example of a similar, existing product, noting each of its key
features.
Brainstorm Solutions
 Generate as many possible solutions as possible
Choose the Best Solution
 Select from the possible solution the one that meets design requirements.
 Reject solutions that do not meet the requirements.
Build a Prototype
 Build an operating version of a solution with different materials than the final
version
Test and Redesign
 The design process involves multiple iterations and redesigns of your final
solution.
 Test your solution, find new problems, make changes, and test new solutions
before settling on a final design.
Develop the Solution:
 Refine and improve the solution.
 This stage continues throughout the design process, often even after a product
ships to customers.
Communicate Results:
 Document and communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a
display board so that solutions so that they can be manufactured and supported.

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Question 5
(a) Distinguish between probabilistic and non probabilistic sampling methods.[8]
(b) Briefly explain how sampling is done using the following techniques simple
random, Multi-stage, stratified and cluster sampling. [12]

Model Answers
(a) Distinguish between probabilistic and non probabilistic sampling methods. [8]
Non-Probability Sample:
 every member of the population does not have an equal chance of being
selected.”
 Used when a group that represents the target population already exists, when it is
impossible or overly difficult to obtain a list of names for sampling. Example –
homeless. When research is exploratory in nature and all of the cases of interest
may not be identified ahead of time.

Probability Sample:
 A sample selected in such a way that every case has a known chance of being
selected.
 Probability samples are based on probability theory and the ability to later use
inferential statistics to compute the likelihood that sample characteristics are
representative of the population.

(b) Briefly explain how sampling is done using the following techniques, simple
random,, stratified, cluster and Multi-stage sampling. [12]

Simple Random Sample:

A probability sample in which every member of a study population is given an equal
chance of being selected. The subjects are assigned numbers and these numbers are
picked at random until the required sample size is reached.

Stratified Random Sample:

A probability sample in which the study population is divided into smaller groups or
“strata” on the basis of some important characteristic. Simple random samples are then
selected from each stratum.

Multi-stage Sample:
A probability sample that involves two or more stages, typically combining different
sampling strategies. For example, clusters of elements from a study population may be
sampled, followed by a sample of cases within each element.

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Question 6.
(a) “Aims and objectives should be SMART”. Discuss. [10]
(b) More frequently used techniques for generating research ideas are rational and
creative thinking. Explain how they are used. [10]

Model Answer
(a) “Aims and objectives should be SMART”. Discuss. [10]
 be presented concisely and briefly
 be interrelated. The aim is what you want to achieve, and the objective describes
how you are going to achieve that aim i.e. make sure that each aim is matched with
specific objectives
 be realistic about what you can accomplish in the duration of the project and the
other commitments you have i.e. the scope of your project must be consistent with
the time frame and level of effort available to you
 provide you and your assessors with indicators of how you
- intend to approach the literature and theoretical issues related to you project
-intend to access your chosen subjects, respondents, units, goods or services and
develop a sampling frame and strategy or a rationale for their selection
-will develop a strategy and design for data collection and analysis
-will deal with ethical and practical problems in your research

(b) Capability and appropriateness are two attributes of a good research topic. Explain
[10]
Capability- Is it feasible?
 Is the topic something with which you are really fascinated?
 Do you have or can you develop within the project time frame the necessary research
skills to undertake the topic?
 Is the research topic achievable within the available time?
 Will the project still be current when you finish the project?
 Is the research topic achievable within the financial resources that are likely to be
available?
 Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain access to data you are likely to
require for this topic?

Appropriateness- Is it worth while?

 Does the topic fit the specifications and meet the standards set by the examining
institution?
 Does the research topic contain issues that have a clear link to theory?
 Are you able to state your research questions and objective clearly?
 Will your proposed research be able to provide fresh insights into this topic?
 Does the research topic relate clearly to the idea you have been given (perhaps by an
organization)?
 Are the findings of this research likely to be symmetrical ie of similar value whatever
the outcome?
 Does the research topic match your career goals?

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Question 7.
List and briefly explain any 10 ethical principals that should be considered when
conducting various types of research. [20]
Model Answer
Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods
and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-
deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought
and action.
Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work
and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data
collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give proper acknowledgement
or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research,
public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or
other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize
benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with
vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research
fairly.