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Direct Current Circuits

Summary of Principles
SERIES CONNECTED RESISTANCES
 IT = I1 = I2 = I3
 VT = V1 + V2 + V3
 RT = R1 + R2 + R3
PARALLEL CONNECTED RESISTANCES
 IT = I1 + I2 + I3
 VT = V1 = V2 = V3
 1/ RT = 1/ R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3

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Magnetic Induction
What is Electromagnetic Induction?
 Electromagnetic induction refers to the generation of an electric current by passing a
metal wire through a magnetic field.
 Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force across
an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field.
 When an induced current is produced because of voltage production (E.M.F) due to a
changing magnetic field, it is called electromagnetic induction

Brief History of Electromagnetic Induction

 In 1820, Oersted first discovered that a magnetic field is always associated with an
electric current.
 In 1831, August 29, Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction by his famous
induction ring experiment.

Electromagnetic Induction Test

 Make a connection between the galvanometer and the copper coil with the electric wires.
 Try to push the bar inside of the coil.
 Take away the bar from the coil.

Characteristics of Electromagnetic Induction

 For movements between magnetic bar and the conductor, there will be deflections in
galvanometer.
 If the bar and the conductor remain steady then there will be no deflections in the
galvanometer.
 If the pole of the magnetic bar is changed, the direction of induced current will change.
 When the loops in the coil increases the deflection become greater and when loops
decreases the deflection become smaller.

Faraday's experiments of Electromagnetic Induction

 Faraday conducted three different experiments to find electromagnetic induction.
 He used a coil of wire, galvanometer, and a bar magnet, by noticing deflections he
conducted his first experiment.
 He replaced the magnet bar with a current carrying solenoid to perform his second
experiment.
 He placed two coils close together face to face but at rest with respect to each other and
by closing and opening the circuit he conducted his third experiment.

Magnetic Flux
 The flux of the magnetic field through a surface is defined in a similar manner as we
defined flux in the electric field.

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 If the magnetic field is constant, the magnetic flux passing through a surface of vector
area S is ∅B= B.S cos θ
 Magnetic flux is usually measured with a flux meter, which contains measuring coils and
electronics that evaluates the change of voltage in the measuring coils to calculate the
magnetic flux.
 The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the
CGS unit is the Maxwell.

Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

 Faraday's Law: It states that, the E.M.F induced in a wire is proportional to the rate of the
flux through the loop.
 Neumann's Law: The magnitude of the induced E.M.F is proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux linking the circuit.
 Lenz's Law: The induced E.M.F acts to the circulate a current in a direction that oppose
the change in flux which caused the induced E.M.F.

Explanation of Lenz's Law

 According to Lenz's law, the direction of included current in a coil is such that it always
opposes the cause which produces it.
 This law follows the law of conservation of energy.

Self-Induction
 Self-Induction is the characteristic of the coil itself.
 When the main current in the coil decreases, the induced current opposes the decay of
current in the coil.
 When the main current in the coil increases, the induced current opposes the growth of
current in the coil.

Mutual-Induction
 Mutual induction is the characteristic of a pair of coils.
 When the main current in the coil decreases, induced current developed in the
neighbouring coil opposes the decay of current in the coil.
 When the main current in the coil increases, the induced current developed in the
neighbouring coil opposes the growth of current in the coil.

Some Applications of EMI

 Induction Sealing.  Magnetic flow meters.
 Induction motors.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation.
 Electrical generators.  Graphics tablet.
 Transformers.  Wireless energy transfer.
 Contactless charging of  Audio and video tapes.
rechargeable batteries.  Electric Guitar Pickups.
 Induction welding.

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Transformer
 A transformer is an electrical device which, by the principles of electromagnetic
induction.
 It transfers electrical energy from one electric circuit to another, without changing the
frequency.
 Transformers either increases or decreases AC voltage, two types step-up and step-
down.

Electrical Generator
 Generator, operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 A generator is a device that converts motive power into electrical power for use in an
external circuit.
 In the simplest form of generator the conductor is an open coil of wire rotating between
the poles of a permanent magnet.

Magnetic Induction
 Electric and magnetic forces both act only on particles carrying an electric charge
 Moving electric charges create a magnetic field
 A changing magnetic field creates an electric field.
 This effect is called magnetic induction
 This links electricity and magnetism in a fundamental way
 Magnetic induction is also the key to many practical applications

Electromagnetism
 Electric and magnetic phenomena were connected by Orsted in 1820
 He discovered an electric current in a wire can exert a force on a compass
needle
 Indicated a electric field can lead to a force on a magnet
 He concluded an electric field can produce a magnetic field
 Did a magnetic field produce an electric field?
 Experiments were done by Michael Faraday

Faraday’s Experiment
 Faraday attempted to observe an induced electric field
 He used an ammeter instead of a light bulb
 If the bar magnet was in motion, a current was observed
 If the magnet is stationary, the current and the electric field are both zero

Another Faraday Experiment

 A solenoid is positioned near a loop of wire with the light bulb
 He passed a current through the solenoid by connecting it to a battery
 When the current through the solenoid is constant, there is no current in the wire
 When the switch is opened or closed, the bulb does light up

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Conclusions from Experiments

 An electric current is produced during those instances when the current through the
solenoid is changing
 Faraday's experiments show that an electric current is produced in the wire loop only
when the magnetic field at the loop is changing
 A changing magnetic field produces an electric field
 An electric field produced in this way is called an induced electric field
 The phenomena is called electromagnetic induction

Magnetic Flux
 Faraday developed a quantitative theory of induction now called Faraday's Law
 The law shows how to calculate the induced electric field in different situations
 Faraday's Law uses the concept of magnetic flux
 Magnetic flux is similar to the concept of electric flux
 Let A be an area of a surface with a magnetic field passing through it
 The flux is ∅B= B.A cos θ
 If the field is perpendicular to the surface, ∅B= BA
 If the field makes an angle with the normal to the surface, ∅B= B.A cos θ
 If the field is parallel to the surface, ∅B= 0
 The magnetic flux can be defined for any surface
 A complicated surface can be broken into small regions and the definition of flux
applied
 The total flux is the sum of the fluxes through all the individual pieces of the
surface.
 The surfaces of interest are open surfaces
 With electric flux, closed surfaces were used
 The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb)
 1 Wb=1 T x m²

Faraday’s Law
 Faraday's Law indicates how to calculate the potential difference that produces the
induced current
 Written in terms of the electromotive force induced in the wire loop

 The magnitude of the induced emf equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux
 The negative sign is Lenz's Law

Applying Faraday’s Law

 The & is the induced emf in the wire loop
 Its value will be indicated on the voltmeter
 It is related to the electric field directly along and inside the wire loop

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 The induced potential difference produces the current

 The emf is produced by changes in the magnetic flux through the circuit
 A constant flux does not produce an induced voltage
 The flux can change due to
 Changes in the magnetic field
 Changes in the area
 Changes in the angle
 The voltmeter will indicate the direction of the induced emf and induced current
and electric field

Faraday’s Law, Summary

 Only changes in the magnetic flux matter
 Rapid changes in the flux produce larger values of emf than do slow changes
 This dependency on frequency means the induced emf plays an
important role in AC circuits
 The magnitude of the emf is proportional to the rate of change of the flux
 If the rate is constant, then the emf is constant
 In most cases, this isn't possible and AC currents result
 The induced emf is present even if there is no current in the path enclosing an
area of changing magnetic flux

Flux Through a Changing Area

 A magnetic field is constant and in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the rails and
the bar
 Assume the bar moves at a constant speed
 The magnitude of the induced emf is ε = BLV
 The current leads to power dissipation in the circuit

Conservation of Energy
 The mechanical power put into the bar by the external agent is equal to the electrical
power delivered to the resistor
 Energy is converted from mechanical to electrical, but the total energy remains the same
 Conservation of energy is obeyed by electromagnetic phenomena

Electrical Generator
 Need to make the rate of change of the flux large enough to give a useful emf
 Use rotational motion instead of linear motion
 A permanent magnet produces a constant magnetic field in the region between its poles

Generator, cont.
 A wire loop is located in the region of the field
 The loop has a fixed area, but is mounted on a rotating shaft
 The angle between the field and the plane of the loop changes as the loop
rotates

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 If the shaft rotates with a constant angular velocity, the flux varies sinusoidally
with time
 This basic design could generate about 70 V so it is a practical design

Changing a Magnetic Flux, Summary

 A change in magnetic flux and therefore an induced current can be produced in four
ways
 If the magnitude of the magnetic field changes with time
 If the area changes with time
 If the loop rotates so that the angle changes with time
 If the loop moves from one region to another and the magnitude of the field is
different in the two regions

Lenz’s Law
 Lenz's Law gives an easy way to determine the sign of the induced emf
 Lenz's Law states the magnetic field produced by an induced current always opposes
any changes in the magnetic flux
 The induced emf is directed along the perimeter of the flux surface. The induced current
is thus perpendicular to B.

Lenz’s Law, Example 1

 Assume a metal loop in which the magnetic field passes upward through it
 Assume the magnetic flux increases with time
 The magnetic field produced by the induced emf must oppose the change in flux
 Therefore, the induced magnetic field must be downward and the induced current
will be clockwise

Lenz’s Law, Example 2

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 Assume a metal loop in which the magnetic field passes upward through it
 Assume the magnetic flux decreases with time
 The magnetic field produced by the induced emf must oppose the change in flux
 Therefore, the induced magnetic field must be upward and the induced current
will be counterclockwise

Problem Solving Strategy

 Recognize the principle
 The induced emf always opposes changes in flux through the Lenz's Law loop or
path
 Sketch the problem
 Show the closed path that runs along the perimeter of a surface crossed by the
magnetic field lines
 Identify
 Is the magnetic flux increasing or decreasing with time?
 Solve
 Treat the perimeter of the surface as a wire loop
 Suppose there is a current in the loop
 Determine the direction of the resulting magnetic field
 Find the current direction for which this induced magnetic field opposes the
change in the magnetic flux
 This current direction gives the sign (direction) of the induced emf
 Check
 Consider what your answer means
 Check that your answer makes sense

Lenz’s Law and Conservation of Energy

 Mathematically, Lenz's Law is just the negative sign in Faraday's Law
 It is actually a consequence of conservation of energy
 Therefore, conservation of energy is contained in Faraday's Law
 Nowhere in the laws of electricity and magnetism is there any explicit mention of
energy or conservation of energy
 Physicists believe all laws of physics must satisfy the principle of conservation of energy.

Inductance
 In some cases, you must include the induced flux
 When the switch is closed, a sudden change in current occurs in the coil
 This current produces a magnetic field.
 An emf and current are induced in the coil

Inductor
 A coil is type of circuit element called an inductor
 Many inductors are constructed as small solenoid.
 Almost any coil or loop will act as an inductor

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 Whenever the current through an inductor changes, a voltage is induced in the inductor
that opposes this change
 This phenomenon is called self-inductance.
 The current changing through a coil induces a current in the same coil
 The induced current opposes the original applied current, from Lenz's Law

Inductance of a Solenoid
 Faraday's Law can be used to find the inductance of a solenoid
 L is the symbol for inductance

 The voltage across the solenoid can be expressed in terms of the inductance

Mutual Inductance
 It is possible for the magnetic field of one coil to produce an induced current in a second
coil
 The coils are connected indirectly through the magnetic flux

RL Circuit
 DC circuits may contain resistors, inductors, and capacitors
 The voltage source is a battery or some other source that provides a constant voltage
across its output terminals
 Behavior of DC circuits with inductors
 Immediately after any switch is closed or opened, the induced emfs keep the
current through all inductors equal to the values they had the instant before the
switch was thrown
 After a switch has been closed or opened for a very long time, the induced emfs are zero

Time Constant for RL Circuit

 The current at time t is found by

 T is called the time constant of the circuit

 For a single resistor in series with a single inductor, T = L/R
 The voltage is given by

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Energy in an Inductor
 Energy is stored in the magnetic field of an inductor
 The energy stored in an inductor is PE ind = 1/2 L 12
 Very similar in form to the energy stored in the electric field of a capacitor
 The expression for energy can also be stated as

 In terms of the magnetic field,

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Light: Electromagnetic Waves

Maxwell’s Predictions
 In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell provided a mathematical theory that showed a close
relationship between electric and magnetic phenomena. His theory predicted that
electric and magnetic fields can move through space as waves. The theory he
developed is based on the following:
 Electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative
charges.
 Magnetic field lines always form closed loops.
 A varying magnetic field induces an electric field.
 Magnetic fields are generated by moving charges (or currents) or by a varying
electric fields.
 The waves sent out by the oscillating charges are fluctuating electric and magnetic
fields, and so they are called electromagnetic waves, traveling through empty space with
a speed of about 300 000 000 m/s.
 In 1887, Heinrich Hertz was the first to generate and detect electromagnetic waves in a
laboratory setting.

Production of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves are radiated by any circuit carrying an alternating current. The
fundamental mechanism responsible for this radiation is the acceleration of a charged
particle. Whenever a charged particle undergoes an acceleration, it must radiate energy.
 An alternating voltage applied to the wires of an antenna forces an electric charge in the
antenna to oscillate. This is a common technique for accelerating charged particles and
is the source of the radio waves emitted by the broadcast antenna of a radio station. As
the charges continue to oscillate between the rods, the electric field moves away from
the antenna at the speed of light.
 Because the oscillating charges create a current in the rods, a magnetic field is also
generated. The magnetic field lines circle the antenna and are perpendicular to the
electric field at all points. Both fields are perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
wave. Hence, we see that an electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave.
 At great distance from the antenna, the strengths of the electric and magnetic fields
become very weak.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light. In fact, it can be shown that the
speed of an electromagnetic wave is related to the permeability and permittivity of the
medium through which it travels. For free space it is

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 where e is speed of light, po = 4π- 107 Ns²/C² the permeability constant of vacuum, and
= 8.85-10-12 C/Nm² is the permittivity of vacuum.
 It can be shown also that the magnitude of the electric to the magnetic field in an
electromagnetic wave equals the speed of light

 Electromagnetic waves carry both energy and momentum as they travel through space.

The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves

 All electromagnetic waves travel through vacuum with a speed of c. Hence, their
frequency, f, and wavelength, are related by the expression

 types of electromagnetic waves:

RADIO WAVES are the result of charges accelerating through conduction wires.
They are used in radio and television communication systems.
MICROWAVES, have wavelengths ranging between about 1 mm and 30 cm, and
are generated by electronic devices. They are well suited for the radar systems
used in aircraft navigation. Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic
application.
INFRARED WAVES (sometimes called heat waves), produced by hot bodies and
molecules, have wavelengths ranging from about 1 mm to the longest
wavelength of visible light, 700 nm. They are readily absorbed by most materials.
The infrared energy absorbed by a substance appears as heat. This is because
the energy agitates the atoms of the object, increasing their vibrational or
translational motion, and the result is a temperature rise. Physical therapy and
infrared photography are some practical applications.
VISIBLE LIGHT, the most familiar form of electromagnetic waves, may be
defined as the part of the spectrum that is detected by a human eye. Light is
produced by the rearrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules. The
wavelength of visible light are classified as colors ranging from violet, 400 nm, to
red, 700 nm. The eye's sensitivity is a function of wavelength and is greatest at a
wavelength of about 560 nm (yellow-green).
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (UV) covers wavelengths ranging from about 400 nm to
0.6 nm. The Sun is an important source of ultraviolet light (which is the main
cause of suntans). Most of the ultraviolet light from the Sun is absorbed by atoms
in the upper atmosphere, or stratosphere. This is fortunate, because UV light in
large quantities has harmful effects on humans. One important constituent of the
stratosphere is ozone from reactions of oxygen with ultraviolet radiation. This
ozone shield convert lethal high-energy ultraviolet radiation to heat, which warms
the stratosphere.
X-RAYS are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from about 10 nm to 0.1
pm. The most common source of x-rays is the acceleration of high-energy

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electrons bombarding a metal target. X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in

medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer. Because x-rays damage
or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be taken to avoid
unnecessaryexposure and overexposure.
GAMMA RAYS are emitted by radioactive nuclei. They are highly penetrating
and cause serious damage when absorbed by living tissues. Those working near
such radiation must be protected by garments containing heavily absorbing
materials, such as layers of lead.

The Nature of Light

 Until the beginning of the 19th century, light was considered to be a stream of particles,
emitted by a light source that stimulated the sence of sight on entering the eye. That was
proposed by Newton.
 During Newton's lifetime Christian Huygens proposed another theory-wave theory of
light. The wave theory did not receive immediate acceptance because there were not
clear experimental evidence and also due to Newton's great reputation as a scientist.
The first clear demonstration of the wave nature of light was provided in
 1801 by Thomas Young, who showed that light exhibits interference behavior. That is,
for example, at certain points in the vicinity of two sources, light waves can combine and
cancel each other by destructive interference.
 The most important development concerning the theory of light was the work of Maxwell,
who in 1865 predicted that light was a form of electromagnetic wave. Although his theory
explained most known properties of light, some subsequent experiments could not be
explained by the assumption that light was a wave. The most striking of these was the
photoelectric effect (clean metal surfaces emit charges when exposed to ultraviolet
light).
 In 1905 Einstein formulated theory of light quanta and explained the photoelectric effect.
He concluded that light is composed of corpuscles (photons) with energy proportional to
the frequency of the electromagnetic wave, E-hf, where his
Planck's constant.
 Thus, light must have a dual nature. That is, in some cases light acts as a wave and in
others as a particle, but never acts as both in the same experiments.

The Speed of Light

 Light travels so fast that early attempts to measure its speed were unsuccessful. The
first known successful estimate of the speed of light was made in 1675 by Ole Roemer.
His technique involved astronomical observations of one of the moons of Jupiter, Io. He
estimated the speed of light to be about 210 000 km/s.
 Later, in 1849, Fizeau arrived at a value of 310 000 m/s. A recent value of the speed of
light in a vacuum, obtained using a laser technique, is 299 792 458 m/s.

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Geometric Optics
 Explanations of such phenomena can be done by geometrical analysis of light rays. That
part of optics is often called geometric optics.
 First property of light, inside geometric optics, can be understood based on common
experience: light travels in a straight line path until it encounters a boundary between
two different materials. When light strikes a boundary it either is reflected from the
boundary, passes into the material on the other side of the boundary, or partially does
both.
 We use the ray approximation to represent beams of light.

Reflection of Light
 When a light ray traveling in a transparent medium encounters a boundary leading into a
second medium, part (or total) of the incident ray is reflected back into first medium.
Reflection of light from a smooth surface is called specular reflection. If the reflecting
surface is rough, the surface reflects the rays in a variety of directions. Reflections from
any rough surface is known as diffuse reflection. We will concern ourselves only with
specular reflection, and we use term reflection to mean specular reflection.
 Experiments show that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence, that is,

 When a ray of light traveling through a transparent medium encounters a boundary

leading into another transparent medium, part of the ray enters the second medium, and
is said to be refracted.
 Experiments show that the angle of refraction depends on the properties of the two
media and on the angle of incidence as

where, and n, are indices of refraction of two mediums, defined as

Indices of Refraction
 From the definition, we see that the index of refraction is a dimensionless number that is
greater than 1, because speed of light in any medium is less than speed of light in
vacuum. (For a vacuum index equals 1.)
 It is possible to show that, as light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength
changes but its frequency remains constant.

Dispersion of Light
 An important property of the index of refraction is that its value in anything but vacuum
depends on the wavelength of light. This phenomena is called dispersion. Using Snell's
law we can see that light of different wavelengths is bent at different angles when

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incident on a refracting material. Blue light (~470 nm) bends more than red light (~650
nm) when passing into a refracting material.
 Suppose a beam of white light (a combination of all visible wavelengths) is incident on a
prism. Because of dispersion, the rays that emerge from the second face of the prism
fan out in a series of colors known as a visible spectrum.

The Rainbow
 The dispersion of light into a spectrum is demonstrated most vividly in nature through the
formation of a rainbow, often seen by an observer positioned between the Sun and a
rain shower. A ray of light passing overhead strikes a drop of water in the atmosphere
and is refracted and reflected as shown in figure. The small angular difference between
the returning violet and red rays causes us to see the bow.

Total Internal Reflection

 An interesting effect called total internal reflection can occur when light attempts to move
from a medium with a high index of refraction to one with refracted light ray moves
parallel a lower index of refraction. At some particular angle of incidence, called the
critical angle, the to the boundary. For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle,
the beam is entirely reflected at the boundary.
 Interecting applications are submarine periscopes and fiber optics (in medicine and
telecommunications)

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Light as Electromagnetic Wave

Light as a Wave
 light is a visible form of energy
 most of the energy that surrounds us is invisible
 this energy travels in waves made of electric and magnetic fields
 called "Electromagnetic Radiation"
 Electromagnetic Spectrum = the entire range of visible and invisible energy waves

Properties of Wave

Electromagnetic Wave
 Transverse waves without a medium (They can travel through empty space)
 They travel as vibrations in electrical and magnetic fields.
 Have some magnetic and some electrical properties to them.
 Electromagnetic waves travel VERY FAST-around 300,000 kilometres per second (the
speed of light).
 At this speed they can go around the world 8 times in one second.

Waves or Particles?
 Electromagnetic radiation has properties of waves but also can be thought of as a
stream of particles.
 Example: Light
 Light as a wave: Light behaves as a transverse wave which we can filter
using polarized lenses.
 Light as particles (photons): When directed at a substance light can knock
electrons off of a substance (Photoelectric effect)

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Wavelengths of the Electromagnetic Spectrum


 Electromagnetic Spectrum-name for the range of electromagnetic waves when placed in
order of increasing frequency

Microwaves
 Longer than radio, shorter than infrared or visible light
 Wavelength 1 x 10-4 m to 1 x10-¹ m
 used for communication, medicine and consumer use (microwave ovens)

Radio waves
 Have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies of all the electromagnetic waves.
 Low energy waves with long wavelengths
 Includes FM, AM, radar and TV waves Wavelengths of 10''m and longer
 Low frequency
 Used in many devices such as remote control items, cell phones, wireless devices, etc.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) measure the time it takes a radio wave to travel
from several satellites to the receiver, determining the distance to each satellite,
A radio picks up radio waves through an antenna and converts it to sound waves.
 Each radio station in an area broadcasts at a different frequency.
MAGNETIC RESONACE IMAGING)
 Uses Short wave radio waves with a magnet to create an image.
Ovens.
 Waves transfer energy to the water in the food causing them to vibrate which in
turn transfers energy in the form of heat to the food
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)
 Used to find the speed of an object by sending out radio waves and measuring
the time it takes them to return.

Infrared waves
 Invisible electromagnetic waves that are detected as heat
 Can be detected with special devices such as night goggles
 Used in heat lamps
 Higher energy than microwaves but lower than visible light
 You can feel the longest ones as warmth on your skin Warm objects give off more heat
energy than cool objects.

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Infrared Rays
 Infrared = below red Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than microwaves.
 Thermogram-a picture that shows regions of different temperatures in the body.
Temperatures are calculated by the amount of infrared radiation given off.
 Therefore people give off infrared rays.
 Heat lamps give off infrared waves.

Visible Light
 Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than infrared rays.
 Electromagnetic waves we can see.
 Longest wavelength= red light
 Shortest wavelength= violet (purple) light
 When light enters a new medium it bends (refracts). Each wavelength bends a different
amount allowing white light to separate into it's various colors ROYGBIV

Ultraviolet waves
 Higher energy than light waves
 Can cause skin cancer and blindness in humans
 Used in tanning beds and sterilizing equipment
Ultraviolet Rays
 Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than visible light
 Carry more energy than visible light
 Used to kill bacteria. (Sterilization of equipment)
 Too much can cause skin cancer. Use sun block to protect against (UV rays)
 Causes your skin to produce vitamin D (good for teeth and bones)

X-Rays
 High energy waves
 Used in medicine, industry and astronomy
 Can cause cancer
 Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than UV-rays
 Carry a great amount of energy
 Can penetrate most matter.
 Examples:
 Bones and teeth absorb x-rays. (The light part of an x-ray image indicates a
place where the x ray was absorbed)
 Too much exposure can cause cancer (lead vest at dentist protects organs from
unnecessary exposure)
 Used by engineers to check for tiny cracks in structures.
 The rays pass through the cracks and the cracks appear dark on film

Gamma Rays

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 Highest energy
 Blocked from Earth's surface by atmosphere
 Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than X-rays
 Carry the greatest amount of energy and penetrate the most.
 Examples:
 Used in radiation treatment to kill cancer cells
 Can be very harmful if not used correctly.
 The Incredible Hulk was the victim of gamma radiation.
 Exploding nuclear weapons emit gamma rays.

Brief Summary
 All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed.
 (300,000,000 meters/second) in a vacuum.
 They all have different wavelengths and different frequencies
 Long wavelength - lowest frequency
 Short wavelength - highest frequency
 The higher the frequency the higher the energy.

How Light is Transmitted


 Transparent: allows light to pass through
 Translucent: allows some light to pass through
 opaque: allows no light to pass through

Light Reflection
 The reason we see objects is because they reflect light

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Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Consists of all the different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including light,
radio waves, and X-rays.

Radio Waves
 Low-frequency
 Widely used for communication
 Produced by longwave radio transmitters, used for some ship and airplane
communication and navigation
 Long waves have frequencies as low as 30 kHz (30,000 Hz) and wavelengths as long as
10 kilometers
 Waves used for AM radio broadcasting is slightly higher on the frequency scale.
 This section of the spectrum extends from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz
 Higher on the scale are the frequencies used by shortwave radio (2 to 30 megahertz,
MHz)
 Commonly used for international broadcasting.
 Waves in the shortwave band are easily bounced off the ionosphere in the
earth's upper atmosphere, so a shortwave radio broadcast can often be heard
halfway around the world.
 Still higher frequencies are used for television and FM radio broadcasting.
 The FM band uses frequencies from 87.5 MHz to 107.9 MHz
 Ordinary television broadcasts use frequencies of between 54 MHz and 216
MHz.
 The highest frequencies of radio waves are used by UHF (ultra high frequency, covers a
range from 300 megahertz to 3.0 gigahertz) television broadcasts and cellular
telephones.

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Microwaves
 Consists of waves of higher frequency and shorter wavelength.
 Range between 1 and 40 gigahertz or GHz (1 GHz = 1 billion Hz).
 Has many uses:
 Microwave oven- uses intense beams of microwaves to cook food.
 The food absorbs the energy of the microwave radiation and quickly
becomes very hot as the energy is transformed into heat within the food.
 Also widely used in communication, especially between communications satellites and
ground stations.
 RADAR – Radio Detection And Ranging
 radar device uses reflected radio waves or microwaves to measure the
distance and direction of faraway objects.
 A typical radar system emits a brief pulse of microwaves and
listens for “echoes.”
 By measuring the time between the initial pulse and the echoes, it
determines an object’s distance from the transmitter.
 Other Uses of RADAR
 During WW II: detect enemy planes and ships at a distance
 Civilian uses:
 monitor airplane traffic at airports
 Track hurricanes
 Check the speed of vehicles Doppler radar) - highway
patrol
 Find the speed of an object by sending out radio
waves and measuring the time it takes them to
return.
 INFRARED
 Above the microwaves on the frequency scale and below red visible light
in terms of frequency.
 Best known as "heat waves they transmit nadiant heat very effectively.
 Our skin can easily detect them as "warmth"
 Also produced by heat lamps.

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 Infrared video cameras allow firefighters, helicopter pilots, soldiers, and

other users to see in the dark, even through thick smoke and fog.

Visible Light/ White Light

 Above the infrared.
 Narrow band of frequencies that is perceived by our eyes as visible light.
 The only region in the entire electromagnetic spectrum that our eyes are sensitive to is
the visible region.
How are wavelengths detected by the human eye?
 Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye is
capable seeing.
 Objects can be seen if they are a source of light.
 Most objects around do not give off light on their own.
 They can be seen only if light waves from another source reflect off them and
into our eyes.
 Light waves move in all directions from a light source
 When white light is refracted, it can be separated into its component colors.
 As light passes through a prism, refraction causes light to bend and separate
into many colors.
 The colors of visible light are created by electromagnetic energy of various
wavelengths (frequencies).

Ultraviolet
 Frequency is slightly higher than that of the visible light.
 Can kill living cells
 Used to sterile medical instruments (ex. Surgeon scalpel)
 Can cause sunburn but have beneficial effects on our body.
 Vitamin D an important chemicals in our bodies
 produced when UV radiation breaks down compounds called sterols in our skin.

X-Rays
 Higher frequency than ultraviolet.
 Extremely useful because of their ability to easily penetrate many materials.
 Doctors can see through flesh to examine a broken bone.

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 Used in
 Dentistry
 In airport security
 In industry
 Prolonged exposure to X-rays is harmful.

Gamma Rays
 Extremely high frequency.
 Harmful to living tissues
 Excessive exposure to gamma rays can cause painful radiation burns, cancer, or death.
 Useful to mankind:
 In a medical technique called radiotherapy.
 Focused beams of gamma radiation are used to destroy cancerous
tumors in a person’s body without harming healthy tissue.
 Also used in irradiators to sterilize adhesive bandages and other medical
supplies.

How Light is Transmitted

 Reflection is when light bounces off of a Surface
 Specular reflection is when light reflects off of a shiny surface like mirror.
 Diffuse reflection however, is when light illuminates a dull object.
 Transmission of light is when light waves move all the way through a material without
absorbed.

Opaque, Transparent, and Translucent

 Light passes through some objects but is blocked by others.
 Opaque
 Opaque materials completely block light from passing through.
 Transparent
 Transparent materials allow light to pass through with little or no disturbance
Transparent objects may or may not color the light, but you can see objects
clearly through them.
 Translucent
 Translucent materials allow only part of the light to pass through, while bouncing
the rays off in many directions giving only a blurry view.

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Law of Reflection
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane
2. The angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

Law of Refraction
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence, belong to the same plane.
2. Snell’s Law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is equal to the ratio of the index of refraction of the second medium to the
index of refraction of the first medium. (refer to page 209 of your book)

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Geometric Optics
Geometric Optics
 "The branch of optics that focuses on the creation of images is called geometric optics".

Rules of Geometric Optics

 Light is a flow of photons with wavelengths. We'll call these as "light rays."
 A photon is a tiny little particle of light, far too small to see individually.
 Light rays travel in straight lines in free space.
 Light rays do not interfere with each other as they cross.
 Light rays obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
 Light rays travel from the light sources to the Eye.

Principle Objective of Geometric Optics

 to be able to determine the location of an image for certain optical elements arrange in a
specific geometry.
 This may be accomplished in two ways:
1. One can sketch key ray paths in a scale drawing of the geometry.
2. one can calculate the image distance and properties using a set of equations.

Basics:
1. Reflection:
 Plane Mirror
 A plane mirror is a mirror with a planar reflective surface.
 For light rays striking a plane mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle
of incidence.
 Image formation by plane mirror:
 If you stand in front of a plane mirror you see your image behind the
mirror. The location of the image can be diagramed knowing that the
surface of the mirror reflects light with an angle of reflection equal to
the incident angle.
 Properties of Image:
 It is formed
 behind the mirror
 it is right side up
 having same size as that of object
 Far behind the surface as the object is in front of it.
 We refer to the image as virtual image.
 Spherical mirror
 A reflecting surface having the form of a portion of a sphere
 Ray Diagrams Points:
 One surface of the curved mirror is silvered.

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
The centre of the sphere is called the centre of curvature C.

The geometrical centre of the mirror is called its pole (P)

The line joining the pole of the mirror and its centre of curvature is
called the principal axis.
 When a parallel beam of light is incident on a spherical mirror, the
point where the reflected ray converge on the principal axis is called
the principal focus F.
 Uses of Spherical Mirrors:
CONVEX MIRROR:
 Sunglasses
 Vehicle
 Security
 Magnifying Glass
CONCAVE MIRROR:
 Vehicle
 Light Concentration
 Image Distance
o All virtual images have negative distances
o All real images have positive image distances
 Types:

1) Concave Mirror
 "If the reflecting surface lies on the inside of the curve, is a
concave mirror".
 Rules:
o Rays parallel to the principle axis are reflected towards
the principle focus of the mirror.
o A ray passing through the centre of curvature retraces
its path
o A ray passing through the principal focus, after
reflection is rendered parallel to the principal axis.
o A ray of light which strikes the mirror at its pole gets
reflected according to the law of reflection.
 Image formation in Concave Mirror:
o CASE 1:
When the object is placed at the center of curvature, the
image is of same size, real and inverted and is at the
center.
o CASE 2:
When the object is placed after the centre of curvature,
it is seen that the image is real, inverted, small in shape
and lies between the centre C and focus F.
o CASE 3:

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When the object is placed within the focus of the mirror

it is seen that image is virtual, erect and enlarged in
shape and lies behind the mirror.
o CASE 4:
When the object is between the centre of curvature and
focus,it is seen that image is real, inverted and enlarged
and lies outside the centre of curvature.

2) Convex Mirror
 "If the reflecting surface lies on the outside of the curve, is a
convex mirror".
 Rules:
o A ray of light traveling parallel the principal axis after
reflection from a convex mirror appears to come from its
focus behind the mirror
o A ray of light traveling towards the centre of curvature
behind the mirror and is reflected back its own path.
 Image formation in convex Mirror:
o The object is placed anywhere in front of the convex
mirror.
o The ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection
appears to come from the focus F behind the mirror.
o Another ray going towards the centre of curvature C
behind the mirror gets reflected by the same path.
o The two reflected rays appear to intersect at a point
between F and P behind the mirror.
o The image appears to be formed behind the mirror.
o So the image formed by the convex mirror is virtual,
erect and smaller in size with respect to object.

2. Refraction:
Spherical Lenses
 Convex Lens
 "It is a converging lens such that a beam of light passing through it is
brought to a point or focus".
 Image Distance:
o An image located behind the lens has a positive image distance.
 Concave Lens
 "It is a diverging lens such that a parallel beam of light passing through it
is caused to diverge or spread out".
 Image Distance:

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oAn image distance marked off in front of the lens is considered

negative
 Uses of Spherical Lenses
Uses of CONCAVE LENS:
 Telescopes
 Spectacles
 Door hole lenses
Uses of CONVEX LENS:
 Telescopes
 Spectacles
 Microscopes

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Interference and Diffraction of Light

Interference of Light
 It is the mutual reinforcement or cancellation that occurs when two or more waves meet.
 Interference of light is the phenomena of multiple light waves interfering with one another
under certain circumstances, causing the combined amplitudes of the waves to either
increase or decrease.
 Examples of the interference of light:
 The light reflected from a film of oil floating on water.
 The soap bubble that reflects a variety of beautiful colors when illuminated by
natural or artificial light sources.

Difference between Constructive and Destructive Interference

 The dynamic interplay of colors derives from the simultaneous reflection of light from
both the inside and outside surfaces of the bubble.
 The two surfaces are very close together (they are only a few microns thick), and light
reflected from the inner surface interferes both constructively and destructively with light
reflected from the outer surface.
 It is because light reflected from the inner surface of the bubble must travel further than
light reflected from the outer surface.
 When the light waves reflected from the inner and outer surface combine, they will
interfere with each other, removing or reinforcing some parts of white light by destructive
or constructive interference.
 Constructive interference occurs when a bright line appears on the screen.
 Destructive interference occurs when a dark line appears on the screen.

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

 The phenomenon of interference of light was demonstrated by Thomas Young, an
English physicist, in 1801.
 He arranged two very narrow slits close together and illuminated them from a single slit
with a monochromatic light (a light of a single wavelength).
 The resulting patterns on the screen, a product of interference between the two
diffracted beams of laser light, are often referred to as interference fringes.

Notes:
 Interference effects in light waves are not easy to observe due to their short
wavelengths.
 Conditions to follow in order to be able to observe interference of light:
1. The light source must be coherent.  When the light waves are emitted from a single
source and they have the zero phase difference between them then the waves are said
to be coherent.
2. The sources must be monochromatic or of single wavelength.
3. The principle of superposition must apply.

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 The Principle of Superposition states that when two waves of the same kind meet
at a point in space, the resultant displacement at that point is the vector sum of
the displacements that the two waves would separately produce at that point.

Principle of Superposition
 When two or more waves pass a particular point in a medium simultaneously, the
resulting displacement at that point in the medium is the sum of the displacements due
to each individual wave.
 The waves interfere with each other.

Diffraction of Light
 Is the bending of light around corners such that it spreads out and illuminates areas
where a shadow is expected.
 This property of light is not easy to detect since the bending is very small.
 The silver lining which we witness in the sky is caused due to diffraction of light.
 When the sunlight passes through or encounters the cloud, a silver lining is seen
in the sky.
 The common way of detecting the bending of light is by observing interference patterns
of light that is deviated coming from a single slit on a screen called single-slit diffraction.

SingleSlit Diffraction
 In the single-slit diffraction we can observe the bending phenomenon of light or
diffraction that causes light from a coherent source to interfere with itself and produce a
distinctive pattern on the screen called the diffraction pattern.
 Diffraction is evident when the sources are small enough that they are relatively the size
of the wavelength of light.
 For large slits, the spreading out is small and generally unnoticeable.

Diffraction Grating
 A diffraction grating is an optical plate that divides or disperses white light.
 A diffraction grating defines an optical component with a periodic structure that splits the
light into various beams that travel in different directions.
 It is an alternative way to observe spectra other than a prism.

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Supplementary Videos (thankyou, Chelsea <3)

SPHERICAL MIRROR
Plane mirror:
 Image found behind the mirror.
 Properties of a plain image: Virtual and upright. Has the same object height and
distance
 To measure the image reflected by the mirror, a Ray diagram must be utilized. Minimum
of 2 rays from the object to obtain a point on the image
 Light ray rules for spherical mirrors:

Concave mirror:
- converging mirror.
Rules for image formation for concave:
Rule 1 - ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis, after reflection passes through
the focus.
Rule 2 - ray of light passing through the center of curvature is reflected back along the
same path. (because the ray of light falls normally and perpendicular to the mirror)
Rule 3 - ray of light passing through the focus after reflection becomes parallel to the
principal axis (opposite to rule 1 due to reversibility of light)
Rule 4 - ray of light which is incident at the pole of a concave mirror is reflected back
making the same angle with the principal axis (angle of incidence = angle of reflection)
 How to draw concave images:
1. Select two out of the first three rules to draw concave images that are convenient
for the diagram. Note: avoid using the 4th rule unless it is necessary since it’s
hard to measure angles accurately with a protractor.
2. Take light rays starting from the top of the object
3. If object is beyond c, rules 1 &2. Intersection between two reflected rays:
formation of image which is the top of the object. This causes the image to turn
upside down
 Properties of a concave mirror: real and inverted, diminished ( smaller than the
object) location is at the center of curvature and focus
 Properties of image:
- real and inverted?
- Virtual and upright?
- Magnified, diminished or same size of the object? What is the position of the image?
 Object is at c: rules 1&3
 Concave mirror: used for shaving because the image produced is magnified
 Point where they meet: position of the top image

Convex mirror:
 Diverging mirror
 Rules for image formation of a convex mirror:
Rule 1 - ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis, after reflection it appears to be
coming from the focus.
Rule 2 - ray of light going towards the centre of curvature of a convex mirror is reflected
back along the same path.
Rule 3 - ray of light going towards the focus after reflection becomes parallel to the
principal axis ( opposite of rule 1 due to reversibility of light).

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Rule 4 - ray of light which is incident at the pole of a convex mirror is reflected back
making the same angle with the principal axis. (angle of incidence= angle of reflection)
Just like in concave mirrors, avoid using the fourth rule and select 2 out of the first 3
rules.
 Divergent rays= must be produced backwards
 Point where they meet: position of the top image
 Take light rays starting from the top of the object
 Feet is at the principle axis
 Properties of a convex image: virtual and upright, diminished, behind the mirror, virtual
and erect
 Image properties for the convex mirror will always be the same no matter where you
stand on the principal axis
 Usually found on roads.
Nature of image of convex mirror: It’s always virtual, upright, and diminished image

INTERFERENCE & DIFFRACTION

 Matter can’t overlap but waves can. Waves are displacements of matter that carry
energy.
 When two waves combine, they will exhibit superposition.
 Two disturbances near one another and their respective series of waves overlap will
produce an interference pattern. This can be easily observed on water
 Types of interference:
1. Constructive interference- the resultant wave has greater amplitude than the
individual waves.
2. Destructive interference- the resultant wave has lesser amplitude than the
individual waves. The resultant wave has smaller amplitude compared to the
individual waves.
3. Complete destructive interference- the resultant wave has zero amplitude
 These types of interference waves can be applied to the periodic waves. For example,
when two phases are exactly in line with each other otherwise known as in-phase,
adding both amplitudes can give us the resultant wave with twice the amplitude due to
constructive interference because the crests and troughs of the in-phase and resultant
wave both align with each other.
 If one of the wavelengths will be shifted by half of its wavelength, the crests of one will
align the troughs of another resulting in the resultant wave becoming zero. Thus we can
say that these waves are out-of-phase and this will be an example of a complete
destructive interference. One example of this is the noise cancellation headphones

I have observed that the principles of superposition were discussed in the video.
 Q: What happens when waves hit boundaries?
A: loose boundaries will reflect waves if those boundaries are free to move bouncing
back from the opposite direction but maintaining the same amplitude. If the boundary is
fixed, it will reflect and invert waves. Sometimes waves can reach a small gap or
opening. If this occurs, the waves will bend around the edges. This type of phenomenon
is called diffraction
 Diffraction- is another type of interference pattern. Caused by the series of maxima and
minima that result. Waves of all types will exhibit this behavior.
 Diffraction of phenomena contributed to the development of quantum theory

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DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT WAVES THROUGH AN APERTURE

 Diffraction of light waves needs small-sized obstacles
 According to rectilinear propagation of light, when light falls on the opaque object,
geometrical shadows of small opaque objects should be formed
 Diffraction is defined as “the bending of light waves around an obstacle whose
dimension is comparable to the wavelength of the incident light.” Hence, it is spreading
into the geometrical shadow

THE DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT

 In 1801, Thomas Young performed the double-slit experiment. Light diffracts through two
slits. The results support the wave theory. Here, the bandwidth is a function of the
frequency of the light
 Maxwell’s Classical Electromagnetism: lightwave is a wave of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields
 In 1905, Einstein showed that light is made of particles known as the Photoelectric
Effect. Thus, we can say that a lightwave is not only a wave but a particle and a wave.
 The de Broglie Wavelength: matter is both a particle and a wave
 Modern double-slit experiment: electrons collect on the screen according to a
diffraction pattern. This demonstrates the wave-like pattern of the electrons. Low-
intensity experiments revealed that even one electron will diffract when passing through
prisms or slits. It shows us that electrons and neutrons act as both particles and waves
 Any object could exhibit a diffraction pattern as long as the object passes through an
aperture roughly the size of the objects wavelength.
 Macroscopic objects have negligible wavelengths.
 Classical mechanics emerges from quantum mechanics (as size increases, wavelength
decreases)The wave function: wave-like behavior by matter
 Erwin Schrodinger and Werner Heisenberg: people who devised the quantum theory.

THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

 Relative motion: velocity measurements always depend on the inertial reference frame
the observer adopts by Galileo
 Einstein’s relative motion: we must always assign the inertial reference frame which we
pretend does not move
 Special Relativity’s (requires that we completely restructure our understanding of space
and time
 Inertial reference frames have zero acceleration (velocity is constant)
 Postulate 1: the laws of physics are the same in every inertial reference frame
 Postulate 2: speed of light (c ) is the same in every inertial reference frame. (c ) is
always the same regardless of the motion of the source
 Conclusion 1: time flows at different rates for different observers

TIME DILATION
 The faster you move, the slower time passes
 To dilate is to expand
 Satellite clocks are programmed with correction factors to account for relativistic effects
and remain in sync with earth. This is where time dilation comes in
 For objects not moving at the speed of light, the difference between the proper and
dilated time intervals becomes completely negligible. We don’t notice it in our everyday
lives. However, it is significant when discussing space travel

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LENGTH CONTRACTION
 Length is also relative
 Length contraction: At faster speeds objects and distances appear shorter
 Proper length- length observed by the observer at rest. Earth is at rest with respect to
the start and end points
 The ship is the inertial reference frame
 Velocity is the same but it is for the planets and not the ship
 Length contraction explains time dilation
 Explains phenomena surrounding certain fast-moving particles
 Time dilates and paths contract

MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

 Energy is equal to mass times the speed of light squared
 A very famous equation
 When relativistic term decreases, momentum increases
 At low speed, relativistic influence is negligible
 Object gains momentum as they approach the speed of light
 Momentum approaches infinity as the velocity approaches the speed of light. This is why
nothing can exceed the speed of light because you would require infinite energy to
accelerate something in order to attain the speed of light
 In speed of light, time is zero
 Lengths become imaginary in the speed of light
 No massive object can surpass or reach the speed of light
 Matter is a dense form of energy
 Tyoes of energy: chemical, electrical, nuclear, thermal, matter
 The conversion of matter directly into pure energy
 Newtonian mechanics is for the large and slow
 Quantum mechanics is for the very small
 Special relativity is for the very fast

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