IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO.

5, OCTOBER 2007 2407

A Fast Flux Search Controller for DTC-Based

Induction Motor Drives
Shahriyar Kaboli, Mohammad Reza Zolghadri, and Esmaeel Vahdati-Khajeh

Abstract—In this paper, a flux search controller is proposed I. I NTRODUCTION

to increase the efficiency of a direct torque-controlled induction
motor in full load range. The value of the flux reference is deter-
mined through a minimization algorithm. The amplitude of stator
current is used as the objective function since it is shown that
I NDUCTION motors consume more than 60% of industrial
electricity [1]. This is why considerable efforts to improve
their efficiency are done. Loss minimization is performed using
samples of the stator current have better statistical properties than high-quality materials and excellent design procedures in the
input power. In addition, the stator current has more sensitivity to
the flux variation than input power. These two properties allow manufacturing process [2], [3], and expert control algorithms
implementing an adaptive algorithm to determine the proper flux in the operation process. In the last category, the main approach
step without waste of time. The minimum allowable value of the is the adaptation of the motor flux to the load variation [4]–[7].
flux step has been determined based on this process to prevent the This method is a well-known technique for loss minimization
divergence problem. This adaptive algorithm set a large flux step and is applied to various kinds of electrical machines, as well
for transient state to speed up the convergence process and a small
as induction motors [8], [9]. Under full load, using the nominal
flux step for steady state to minimize the flux ripple. Simulation
and experimental results presented in this paper confirm the fast flux value decreases the power factor and efficiency of the
dynamic of the proposed method. drive. Three flux control methods for loss minimizing are the
following: flux control as a function of torque [10]–[12], flux
Index Terms—Induction motor drives, optimization methods,
torque control. control based on loss model [13], [14], and flux control by a
minimum loss search controller [15]. The first two approaches
have some disadvantages such as partial improvement in the
N OMENCLATURE drive efficiency in the first approach and high dependence to the
machine parameters in the second one. In the third approach,
Ψ Flux vector.
while the output power of the motor is constant, the flux level
I Current vector.
is iteratively adapted to minimize the input power. This method
U Voltage vector.
is more attractive because it is completely insensitive to motor
Te Electromagnetic torque.
parameter variations and finds the real optimal flux value.
pp Pole pair.
Some versions of this kind of flux controllers has been used
Vdc Inverter dc-link voltage.
for scalar controlled and indirect vector controlled [15]–[17]
R Winding resistance.
induction motors with acceptable performances. However, the
s, r Subscripts for stator and rotor quantities.
convergence time is very long. Therefore, it is only used for
d, q Subscripts for direct and quadrate axis quantities.
motor drives with low-frequency load variations. This is a
n Subscript for nominal quantities.
common drawback of all flux search controllers. In addition,
min Subscript for minimum quantities.
the selection of flux step value is based on experiments. Some
init Subscript for initial value. algorithms have been proposed to improve the performance of
av Subscript for average quantities. flux search controller. Application of neural networks [18]–[21]
∆ψ Flux step. and fuzzy logic [17], [22] help to increase the response of
∆n Noise of stator current samples. the flux controller and to improve its steady-state behavior.
f Objective function. In [23], Pontryagin’s maximum principle is used to improve
Ns Number of sampling period. the efficiency of induction motors during the acceleration and
N Number of averaging intervals. deceleration period. However, these methods usually use motor
NI Number of iterations. parameters and need to determine the minimum flux step [24].
Since the first development of the direct torque control
(DTC) concept [25], [26], it has been used in many ac drive
applications [27]–[29]. This is thanks to its fast torque response
and robustness against machine parameter variations. Its simple
structure is due to using hysteresis comparators and switching
Manuscript received April 2, 2006; revised February 12, 2007. This work vector table for both flux and torque control. In DTC, the ampli-
was supported by the France leading agency for international mobility (Egide). tude of stator flux is usually set to its nominal value. As it was
The authors are with the School of Electrical Engineering, Sharif University
of Technology, Tehran 11365-9363, Iran (e-mail: [email protected]). mentioned, this is not the optimal operating point of drive oper-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2007.900341 ating under full load. The optimum flux control of DTC-based

0278-0046/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE

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 2408 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2007

Fig. 1. Block diagram of the DTC method.

synchronous reluctance motor drives was presented [30] but it

has not been studied for induction motors in depth. In the past
publications, some simple flux controller was proposed for the
DTC-based induction motor drives [31] and the behavior of the Fig. 2. Two-level three-phase inverter and its voltage vectors.
search algorithm was investigated [32], [33].
In this paper, a flux controller has been developed to de-
termine the best flux value in DTC. This controller works the amplitude of the flux remains inside a predefined band.
based on the search algorithm because the other flux controller A two-level three-phase voltage source inverter generates six
categories eliminate the independence of DTC from machine nonzero voltage vectors and two zero voltage vectors, which
parameters. The stator current is used as the objective function can be applied to the machine terminals, as shown in Fig. 2. The
in the optimization process because it has been shown that the stator flux vector can be calculated using the measured current
stator current has more sensitivity to the flux variation [15]. and voltage vectors
In this paper, it is also shown that the stator current has better

statistical properties than input power. The minimum flux step Ψs = (Us − Rs Is )dt. (1)
without divergence problem in the search algorithm is deter-
mined based on the noise level coming from disturbance in the
DTC loop. To decrease the convergence time of the algorithm, Then, torque can be calculated using the components of the
the optimization process contains two stages: large flux step estimated flux and measured currents
for transient regime and small flux step for steady state. The
value of the flux step for these two regimes is determined by Te = pp(ψd Iq − ψq Id ). (2)
the proposed adaptive algorithm too.
In the next section, after a brief introduction about DTC
Circular trajectory of the stator flux is divided into six symmet-
and flux control techniques, the flux search algorithm is de-
rical sectors referred to as the inverter voltage vectors shown
scribed and its limitations are explained. The proposed control
in Fig. 2. For each section, based on the torque and flux errors,
algorithm has been described in Section V. In this section, a
and the position of the flux a proper voltage vector is applied.
preliminary study is presented about the benefits of stator cur-
Certain vectors are applied to the motor so that the amplitude
rent selection as the objective function. The adaptive algorithm
of the flux and torque remain constant. Four different switching
for flux step determination and flux search control process are
methods are proposed for DTC which are shown in Table I [25].
presented based on properties of the stator current. Simulation
Method A is used in this paper.
and experimental results are presented to show the performance
of the proposed controller.
III. O PTIMUM F LUX C ONTROLLERS
II. D IRECT T ORQUE C ONTROL
Usually, motors are designed to have their maximum effi-
The basic idea of the DTC concept, its block diagram shown ciency in their nominal operating point. Therefore, the value of
in Fig. 1, is to choose the best voltage vector, which makes the motor flux should be readjusted when the load is less than the
flux rotate and produce the desired torque. During this rotation, nominal value. Adaptation of flux to load variations can be done
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 KABOLI et al.: FAST FLUX SEARCH CONTROLLER FOR DTC-BASED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES 2409

TABLE I
DIFFERENT STRATEGIES PROPOSED FOR DTC SWITCHING TABLE

in three ways: flux control as a function of torque, flux control

based on loss model, and flux control by a minimum loss search
controller.

A. Flux Controller as a Function of Torque

This category was proposed by many authors such as
Takahashi and Noguchi [25]. The most adapted approach to
DTC sets the amplitude of flux as a function of torque, as
 Fig. 3. Principle of flux search control operation.
Te
|ψs | = |ψsn | . (3)
Ten
it is minimized by adjusting the flux value in consecutive steps.
This method is a well-known technique in industry because
Fig. 3 shows the principle of this method. The stator flux moves
of its simplicity. However, it does not consider the power
from its initial value (|Ψs |0 ) toward its final value (|Ψs |opt ),
dissipation of drive and cannot find the optimal value of flux.
the value that minimizes the objective function. The control
Therefore, it yields only a partial improvement in drive effi-
algorithm is presented as follows
ciency [11], [12].

|Ψs |2 = |Ψs |1 + ∆ψ (4a)

B. Loss Model-Based Flux Controller
In the second category, the optimal flux is determined ac- If f (|Ψs |2 ) > f (|Ψs |1 ) Then ∆ψ = −∆ψ. (4b)
cording to the loss model of induction motor. Of course, this
method is very rapid and gives the optimum operating point of There are two intervals in the flux optimization process:
the motor. However, the performance of this method depends transient interval and steady state. In the first interval, the most
highly on the accuracy in identification of motor parameters and important parameter is the speed of convergence that should be
their variations during operation [13], [14]. fast. In the steady state, the ripple of flux amplitude is important
and it is desired to be as small as possible. It can be expected
that the value of the flux step determines the flux ripple in the
C. Flux Search Controller
steady state and the convergence time in the transient interval.
In the third category, one of the drive variables (usually To increase the speed of the controller, the flux step should be
input power) is minimized by adjusting the flux value. This large. However, a very large step value can lead to instability in
method has a long-time response (more than 10 s) but it is the drive [14]. In addition, in a practical setup, there is a noise
quite independent of drive parameters [15]. Therefore, it is the which is imposed to the measured parameters. Therefore, to be
most well-adapted method for DTC because the other methods able to separate noise effect from flux variation effect on the
eliminate the independence of DTC performance from machine objective function, the minimum step size of the flux should
parameters. be limited.
Fig. 4 shows the effect of the noise, as well as flux variations
on the objective function. If the objective function has a spec-
IV. F LUX S EARCH C ONTROL
ified relation with flux value, then each flux step results in one
As mentioned before in this family of flux controllers, one of objective function value, as shown in Fig. 4(a). However, if the
the drive variables is selected as an objective function and then objective function is merged with some noise or disturbance,
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 2410 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2007

contrast of noise, the samples of the objective function are

correlated so that the averaging process reduces the amplitude
of noise, while the amplitude of the objective function remains
constant and the small effect of flux step on the objective
function becomes clearer. Therefore, the optimization process
remains stable even with very small flux steps. Averaging is
a slow process and it decreases the speed of convergence.
Therefore, all of the search controllers have a long convergence
time (> 10 s) [12], [16].
If the minimum flux step is specified in each sampling time,
the search algorithm can be fast because it updates the flux in
Fig. 4. Effect of noise on the new value of the objective function. (a) Without
each sampling time. In this paper, this idea is used for a flux
noise. (b) With noise. search controller which is implemented in DTC.

V. P ROPOSED F LUX S EARCH C ONTROL FOR DTC

In the conventional DTC, stator flux reference value is a free
parameter which is usually set to its nominal value. Therefore,
implementation of a flux controller is easier in DTC rather than
other ac drive control methods. Thus, it is enough to select an
appropriate objective function for a search algorithm. Basically,
search algorithms use the input power of the drive system
as the objective function and minimize it [15]. In a previous
publication, it was shown that since the stator current is more
Fig. 5. Effect of flux step on the new value of the objective function. (a) Big sensitive to the flux variation than to the input power, using the
flux step. (b) Small flux step. stator current as the objective function leads to better steady-
state behavior of the search controller [15]. However, this leads
to an optimal point which is very close to the real maximum
efficiency point of the drive system [15]. Therefore, the stator
then each flux step results in some objective function values current is used as the objective function for the proposed search
between f (|Ψs |2 ) − ∆n/2 and f (|Ψs |2 ) + ∆n/2, as shown method.
in Fig. 4(b). The superiority of using current instead of power in the
Fig. 5 shows the effect of the step variation value on the objective function can be reexamined comparing the effect of
search algorithm. If the flux step value is large enough, the averaging operator on the noise cancellation, as shown in Fig. 6.
possible resulted values of the objective function are smaller Fig. 6(a) and (d) shows the variance of motor input power
than the previous one [Fig. 5(a)]. Therefore, the direction of and its stator current, respectively. The characteristics of the
variation for the next step will be correctly selected. On the motor are shown in the appendix. Fig. 6(b) and (e) shows
other hand, when the flux step is small, it is possible that some these variances when the averaging operator uses 100 samples.
new values of objective function are greater than the previous It can be seen that the variance of stator current is reduced
one. For example, the value of f (|Ψs |2 ) + ∆n/2 is greater than rapidly, while the variance of input power is high. Fig. 6(c)
f (|Ψs |1 ) in Fig. 5(b). In this case, the control algorithm will and (f) shows these variances when the averaging operator
have a convergence problem and the next step variation will be uses 1000 samples. This figure shows that the stator current
selected incorrectly. To avoid the convergence problem, relation is approximately converged to a unique value by increasing
(5) should be satisfied for any value of flux the averaging samples, while the input power has still a large
variance. This phenomenon can be seen in the experimental
f (|Ψs | + ∆ψ) − f (|Ψs |) > ∆n ∀|Ψs |. (5) results also shown in Fig. 7. The higher variance in the input
power than that in the stator current comes from the nature of
The variation of the objective function with flux amplitude power relation. The power is the result of the multiplication of
is smooth around the optimum value of flux. Therefore, this the stator current and voltage and is calculated using
point is the worst case and is most highly affected by the
noise. The minimum flux step should satisfy (6) in the optimum Pin = Vd Id + Vq Iq . (7)
operating point
The variation of voltage vectors in an inverter-based drive is
f (|Ψs |opt + ∆ψ) − f (|Ψs |opt ) > ∆n. (6) high and it leads to high variation of input power. Therefore, if
the input power is used as the objective function, the averaging
To decrease the effect of noise with small flux steps an operator should use many samples to attenuate the noise and
averaging operator is usually used in the search algorithm. In this reduces the convergence process speed.
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 KABOLI et al.: FAST FLUX SEARCH CONTROLLER FOR DTC-BASED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES 2411

Fig. 6. Variance of motor input power and stator current in DTC. (a) and (d) Without averaging. (b) and (e) Averaging with 100 samples. (c) and (f) Averaging
with 1000 samples.

This property of stator current is used in the proposed search variance of the stator current. The variance of these samples
method of this paper whose flowchart is shown in Fig. 8. As determines the level of noise (∆n) and their mean value is
it was explained in the previous section, if the minimum flux considered as the first mean value according to
step is specified in each sampling interval the flux can be
1 
N
updated in each sampling time, and consequently improves the
speed of the search algorithm. In the first step of the algorithm, Iav = Ii (8)
N 1
some stator current samples are collected. The number of these
samples is not high (for example 50) because of the small ∆n = max(Ii − Iav ). (9)
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 2412 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2007

Then, a small step (∆ψinit ) change is applied to the flux

according to (4a) and some other samples are collected again.
The mean value of these samples and its difference from the
first mean value are calculated according to

∆I = Iav-new − Iav-first . (10)

If this difference is greater than the level of noise the current

flux step is set as the minimum step and the algorithm continues
according to (4). However, if the difference of the means is
smaller than the level of noise, the flux step is increased with
the same sign and the aforementioned process is repeated. The
new difference value is the difference of the new mean value
from the first mean value. After some iteration, the difference
becomes greater than the level of noise. The flux step is set to
the flux step in one step multiplied by the number of averaging
intervals as

∆ψmin = ∆ψinit × NI . (11)

After determination of the minimum flux step, the flux is

updated in consecutive sampling times without averaging until
the new stator current becomes greater than previous one. If
this phenomenon occurs, the preliminary process for flux step
determination is done again. In this process, the sign of flux step
is corrected too.
This algorithm is very fast because the flux is updated with
sampling frequency after determination of the minimum flux
step. The number of samples for preliminary stage is not
very important because a large number of samples reduces the
level of noise and decreases the averaging intervals needed
for determining the minimum flux step. Therefore, it has no
significant effect on the speed of the controller.

VI. R ESULTS
Table II shows the parameters of the induction motor used
in this paper. To verify the simulation results, the proposed
control method has been applied to a DTC experimental test
setup. The experimental setup, shown in Fig. 9, consists of
an induction motor, insulated-gate-bipolar-transistor-based in-
verter, and digital signal processor (DSP) (TMS320C)-based
controller. Detailed characteristics of DSP controlled inverter
are presented in Table III. The machine currents ia and ib and
the dc bus voltage were interfaced into the controller through
an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter built into the DSP board.
The sampling time and motor speed are 133 µs and 300 r/min,
respectively.
Fig. 10 shows the behavior of the stator flux generated by a
conventional flux controller when the flux step is big (0.1 Wb).
It can be seen that the convergence speed of the optimization
algorithm is high but a large flux ripple is seen in the steady
state. Reduction of the flux step leads to decreasing the flux
ripple but this makes divergence problem for the search con-
troller, as shown in Fig. 11 for flux step equals to 0.005 Wb.
Fig. 7. Variance of samples of motor input power with different aver-
aging intervals (experimental results). (a) 500 samples. (b) 5000 samples. This problem has been improved using the averaging algorithm
(c) 20 000 samples. and a bigger flux step, as shown in Fig. 12. It can be seen that
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 KABOLI et al.: FAST FLUX SEARCH CONTROLLER FOR DTC-BASED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES 2413

Fig. 8. Flowchart of proposed flux search controller.

the convergence speed has been improved, while the steady- Fig. 13 shows the operation of the proposed flux controller.
state flux ripple is low. However, this convergence speed is It can be seen that the search controller finds the optimal flux
still low (> 10 s). value rapidly and has a smooth behavior in steady state. The
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 2414 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2007

TABLE II
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTOR

Fig. 10. Stator flux behavior with great flux step. (a) Simulation result.
(b) Experimental result.

Fig. 9. Block diagram of experimental setup.

TABLE III
CHARACTERISTICS OF INVERTER SWITCHES AND
DSP BOARD USED IN EXPERIMENTS

adaptive flux step determination process permits the control

algorithm to operate with a small flux step in steady state. This
rapid response is better than search controllers presented in the
past publications [7]–[18].

VII. C ONCLUSION
An online flux search controller has been used to determine
the reference value of stator flux according to load in DTC. Fig. 11. Stator flux behavior with small flux step without averaging algorithm.
High-frequency current ripples can be considered as a noise sig- (a) Simulation result. (b) Experimental result.
nal in the flux control process. The level of this noise determines
the minimum allowable flux step variation toward the optimum in steady state. The proposed controller uses the adaptive
value of flux. Increasing the averaging interval can attenuate flux step determination algorithm to achieve fast dynamics
the effect of noise but it leads to low-frequency flux variations and good steady-state response. Simulation and experimental
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 KABOLI et al.: FAST FLUX SEARCH CONTROLLER FOR DTC-BASED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES 2415

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[28] J. R. G. Schofield, “Direct torque control-DTC,” ABB Ind. Syst., all in electrical engineering.
Hertfordshire, U.K., Tech. Rep. 1, 1995. Since 1997, he has been with the School of Elec-
[29] G. S. Buja and M. P. Kazmierkowski, “Direct torque control of PWM trical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology.
inverter-Fed AC motors—A survey,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 51, From 2000 to 2003, he was a Senior Researcher
no. 4, pp. 744–757, Aug. 2004. in the Electronics Laboratory of SAM Electronics
[30] H. D. Lee, S. J. Kang, and S. K. Sul, “Efficiency-optimized direct torque Company, Tehran. From 2003 to 2005, he was a
control of synchronous reluctance motor using feedback linearization,” Visiting Professor in the North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro. He
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 192–198, Feb. 1999. is the author of more than 40 publications in power electronics and variable
[31] S. Kaboli, M. R. Zolghadri, D. Roye, and A. Emadi, “Online optimal flux speed drives. His fields of interest are application of power electronics in
controller for DTC based induction motor drives,” in Proc. IEEE Ind. renewable energy systems and hybrid electric vehicle, variable speed drives,
Electron. Conf., 2004, pp. 1391–1395. and modeling and control of power electronic converters.
[32] S. Kaboli, E. Vahdati-Khajeh, M. R. Zolghadri, and A. Homaifar, “A fast
optimal flux search controller with improved steady state behavior for
DTC based induction motor drives,” in Proc. Int. Elect. Mach. and Drive
Conf., 2005, pp. 1732–1736.
[33] S. Kaboli, E. Vahdati-Khajeh, M. R. Zolghadri, and A. Homaifar,
“On the performance of optimal flux search controller for DTC based
induction motor drives,” in Proc. Int. Elect. Mach. and Drive Conf., 2005,
pp. 1752–1756.

Shahriyar Kaboli received the B.S., M.S., and

Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, in
1997, 1999, and 2006, respectively.
He has been teaching many courses of electrical
engineering at the Sharif University of Technology.
He has been a Lecturer since 2003 and as an As- Esmaeel Vahdati-Khajeh was born in Tabriz, Iran,
sistant Professor since 2007. He has worked as a on January 28, 1973. He received the B.S. and
Designer Engineer on the design of high-voltage M.S. degrees in electrical engineering and telecom-
switching power supply and high-power inverters munication engineering from the Sharif Univer-
too. From 2003 to 2004, he spent a sabbatical period sity of Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 1995 and 1997,
as a postdoc candidate at the Institute National Polytechnique de Grenoble, respectively.
Genoble, France. He is the Translator of one book about power electronics into After completing his studies, he spent two years
Persian, which was selected as the best translated book in electrical engineering in the Electronic Research Center of Sharif, working
in 2006. He has published more than 30 papers and technical reports in this field on the multitarget tracking algorithms. Since 2000,
too. His research interests include power electronics and electrical machines. he has been working as a System Engineer on the
Dr. Kaboli is an invited Reviewer of the IEEE Power Electronics Society and statistical signal processing, target detection, and
the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. He received the Exceptional Talents digital signal processing applications. He has published some papers and
Award from the Sharif University of Technology in 2003 and the Financial technical reports in the field. He also has a patented software package for signal
Support Award from Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE- processing in radar applications. His research interests include signal parameter
PEMC) in 2004. estimation, detection, and processing, as well as multitarget tracking.

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