EEE Lagging Wave - A wave is considered lagging if

it reaches its peak value after another wave of

TOPIC 1
the same frequency.
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS
Impedance (Z) - the total opposition to the flow
Alternating current (AC) - is an electric current of alternating current in an AC circuit
that periodically reverses direction and changes
- measured in ohms and is a complex
its magnitude with time.
quantity that combines the effects of
- oscillates sinusoidally resistance (R) and reactance (X).

Direct current (DC) - flows in one direction. Resistance (R) - The opposition to current flow
due to the inherent properties of the material.
PERIODIC WAVE PARAMETERS
Reactance (X) - The opposition to current flow
 Amplitude (A) - The maximum due to energy storage elements like capacitors
displacement of the wave from its (C) and inductors (L).
equilibrium position.
Pure Resistive Circuit - the voltage and current
 Period (T) - The time taken for one are in phase
complete cycle of the wave.
Pure Inductive Circuit - the voltage leads the
 Frequency (f) - The number of cycles current by 90 degrees
completed per unit time, measured in
Hertz (Hz). Pure Capacitive Circuit - the voltage lags the
current by 90 degrees
 Wavelength (λ) - The distance between
two corresponding points on the wave Series RL Circuit - contains both a resistor and
an inductor.
RELATIONSHIP
Series RC Circuit - contains both a resistor and a
Frequency and Period - are inversely capacitor.
proportional
Series RLC Circuit - circuit contains a resistor, an
Frequency - is the rate of change of a wave over inductor, and a capacitor.
time
RLC Circuit Fundamentals
Frequency and Time - the higher the frequency,
the faster the wave changes. Resistor (R) - Dissipates electrical energy as
heat, opposing current flow.
Wavelength and Frequency - For
electromagnetic waves, wavelength and Inductor (L) - Stores energy in a magnetic field,
frequency are inversely proportional resisting changes in current.

phase angle (φ) - refers to the relative position Capacitor (C) - Stores energy in an electric field,
of the voltage and current waveforms at a given resisting changes in voltage.
time.
Charging/Discharging - The capacitor charges or
Leading Wave - wave is considered leading if it discharges through the resistor and inductor.
reaches its peak value before another wave of
the same frequency.
Oscillations - The inductor and capacitor TOPIC 2
exchange energy, leading to oscillations in the
Capacitor and inductor do not dissipate energy.
circuit current and voltage.
Capacitors and inductors are called “storage
Damping - The resistor dissipates energy,
elements.
causing the oscillations to decay over time.
Resistors dissipate energy.
Time Constant (τ) - The time constant of an RLC
circuit determines how quickly the transient  Types of passive elements (absorb and
response decays store energy).
Capacitor - acts as an open circuit, blocking DC  Circuit analysis techniques: Equally
current flow. applicable
Inductor - acts as a short circuit, allowing DC Capacitor - electronic device that stores an
current to flow freely. electrical charge between the two plates.
Steady-State Current - The steady-state current - has two parallel plates separated by
in an RLC circuit with a DC supply is determined an insulating material.
by the resistance and the DC voltage
 The unit of capacitance is Farads (F)
Inductor Behavior - the inductor acts as a short
circuit after a sufficient time has passed.  Capacitance values are normally
smaller, such as µF, nF or Pf
Capacitor Behavior - the capacitor acts as an
open circuit after a sufficient time has passed. Capacitors - passive elements to store
energy in its electric field.
Time Constant - The time constant determines
how quickly the circuit reaches its steady-state o Used in electronics,
condition. communications, computers,
etc:
Energy Storage - The inductor and capacitor o Tuning circuits for radio
store energy during the transient response, receivers
which is then dissipated by the resistor. o constructed by two plates
separated by an insulating
(dielectric)material
 • ratio of the charge, q per plate to the
applied voltage

VALUES OF CAPACITANCE OF CAPACITORS

Farad (F) Inductors - is a passive electronic component

that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
1 microfarad (µF)= 1 X 10-6 Farad field.
1 picofarad (pF) = 1 X 10-12 Farad - consists of a wire loop or coil.

SOME PROPERTIES OF INDUCTOR

WORKING OF CAPACITORS  Allow DC Current to pass.
 Electrons on the left plate are attracted  Stop AC Current.
toward the positive terminal of the  Stores Current in the form of Magnetic
voltage source. field.

 This leaves an excess of positively Inductor - defined as the ratio of the voltage to
charged holes. the rate of change of current.

 The electrons are pushed toward the Inductance -result of the induced magnetic field
right plate. on the coil.

 Excess electrons leave a negative SYMBOL FOR INDUCTOR

charge.

With more charging voltage, the electric field is

stronger and more charge is stored in the
dielectric.

Faraday Law: The amount of charge Q stored

in the capacitor is directly proportional to the Different Types of Inductors
applied voltage.
1. Iron Core Inductor
Q = CV coulombs
2. Air Core Inductor
Capacitance - ratio of the charge on one plate
of a capacitor to the voltage difference between 3. Iron Powder Inductor
the two plates.
 4. Ferrite Core Inductor, which is divided Storing Energy - Inductor stores energy in the
into: form of magnetic energy.

 Soft Ferrite Inductors in Parallel Form - If two terminals of

an inductor are connected to two terminals of
 Hard Ferrite
another inductor, then the inductors are said to
 Iron Core Inductor - the core of this be parallel.
type of inductor is made of iron. These
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CAPACITOR AND
inductors are low-space inductors that
INDUCTOR
have high power and high inductance
value.

 Air Core Inductor - these inductors are

used when the amount of inductance
required is low.

 Iron Powder Inductor - the core is iron

oxide and they are formed by very fine
and insulating particles of pure iron
powder.

 Ferrite Core Inductor - ferrite materials

are used as the core. The general
composition of ferrites is XFe2O4,
where X represents transition material.

Ferrites can be classified into two types: soft

ferrites and hard ferrites.

 Soft Ferrite: These are

materials that have the ability
to reverse their polarity without
any external energy.

 Hard Ferrite: These are

permanent magnets, that is,
their polarity will not change
even when the magnetic field is
removed.

FUNCTIONS OF AN INDUCTOR

 To control signals.

 To store energy.

Controlling Signals - Coils in an inductor can be

used to store energy.
 TOPIC 3 Types of Binary Phase Diagrams

Phase - a homogenous, physically distinct and 1. Complete solid solution type

mechanically separable 2. Eutectic type
3. Peritectic type
Properties of a Materials

Properties of a materials depend on

 Number of phases present

 Types of phases present
 Amount of phases present and
 Distribution of the phases present

Phase diagram - a type of chart used to show

conditions at which thermodynamically distinct
phases can occur at equilibrium at different
temperature, pressure and composition.

Equilibrium Diagrams or Constitutional

Diagrams - The best method to record the data
related to phase changes in many alloy systems
is in the form of phase diagrams.

Components of a Phase Diagram

Triple points - are points on phase diagrams

where lines of equilibrium intersect.

Solidus - the temperature below which the

substance is stable in the solid state.

Liquidus - is the temperature above which the

substance is stable in a liquid state.

Types of Phase Diagram

1. Unary Phase Diagram

2. Binary Phase Diagram
3. Ternary Phase Diagram

Unary Phase Diagrams - are phase diagrams for

single component systems.

Binary Phase Diagrams - The phase diagrams

which contains two components are known as
binary phase diagrams.